POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

OF THE PHILIPPINES
(Electronics Engineering Department)
(College of Engineering)
(Sta. Mesa Campus)

ECEN 201
Electronics Devices and
Circuit Theory
Engr. Ma. Elena Noriega, ECE 2973, PECE 226,
CS Professional
Engr. Aaron Alday ECT 0027183
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 Electronics Devices
and CircuitsTheory
(ECEN201)

Engr. Ma Elena A. Noriega, ECE2973, PECE226, CS Professional

Engr. Aaron Alday, ECT0027183

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this learning module may be reproduced, used in
any form, or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the
authors and the University.

Published and distributed by:

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Campus: PUP A. Mabini Campus, Anonas Street, Sta. Mesa, Manila 1016
Website: www.pup.edu.ph
Email: [email protected]
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 Direct Line: 5335-1730 | Trunk Line: 5335-1787 or 5335-1777 local 201

The VMPGO

VISION
PUP: The National Polytechnic University

MISSION
Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong
learning opportunities through a re-engineered polytechnic university by committing to:
• provide democratized access to educational opportunities for the holistic
development of individuals with global perspective.
• offer industry-oriented curricula that produce highly skilled professionals with
managerial and technical capabilities and a strong sense of public service for
nation-building.
• embed a culture of research and innovation.
• continuously develop faculty and employees with the highest level of
professionalism.
• engage public and private institutions and other stakeholders for the attainment
of social development goal.
• establish a strong presence and impact in the international academic community.

PHILOSOPHY
As a state university, the Polytechnic University of the Philippines believes that:
• Education is an instrument for the development of the citizenry and for the
enhancement of nation-building; and,

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 • That meaningful growth and transformation of the country are best achieved in
an atmosphere of brotherhood, peace, freedom, justice and nationalist-oriented
education imbued with the spirit of humanist internationalism.

SHARED VALUES AND PRINCIPLES

1. Integrity and Accountability
2. Nationalism
3. Sense of Service
4. Passion for Learning and Innovation
5. Inclusivity
6. Respect for Human Rights and the Environment
7. Excellence
8. Democracy

GOALS OF THE COLLEGE/CAMPUS

1. Provide quality education through instruction, advanced research, and extension
services.
2. Produce world-class professionals as potential industry leaders and job
providers.
3. Develop and produce facilities using adapted technology and indigenous
materials.
4. Maintain, upgrade, or improve facilities through the applications of engineering
technology.

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
Electronics is a science dealing with the development and application of devices
and systems involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, in a
vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or in similar
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devices, including, but not limited to, applications involving optical, electromagnetic and
other energy forms when transduced or converted into electronic signals.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
[Focus] This course deals with introduction to quantum mechanics of solid-
state electronics, diodes and transistors characteristics and models (Bipolar
Junction Transistors and Field Effect Transistor), diode and transistor circuits
its application, biasing techniques, small signal analysis, transistor amplifiers
and switches.

. [Output] Experiments on Semiconductor Devices such as different types of Diodes

with an application as Rectifier in power supply circuits, switching device for Digital logic
circuits and, Wave shaping circuits. It also includes different types of Transistors
circuits like Resistor- Transistor Logic, Diode- Transistor Logic, and Transistor -
Transistor logic circuits. [Modality] The course is delivered through a combination of
strategically designed face-to-face and online (synchronous and asynchronous)
sessions.

INSTITUTIONAL LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

As a polytechnic state university, PUP shall develop its students to possess:
1. Critical and Creative Thinking. Graduates use their rational and reflective thinking
as well as innovative abilities to life situations in order to push boundaries, realize
possibilities, and deepen their interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and/or
transdisciplinary understanding of the world.
2. Effective Communication. Graduates apply the four macro skills in communication
(reading, writing, listening, and speaking), through conventional and digital means,
and are able to use these skills in solving problems, making decisions, and
articulating thoughts when engaging with people in various circumstances.
3. Strong Service Orientation. Graduates exemplify strong commitment to service
excellence for the people, the clientele, industry, and other sectors.
4. Adept and Responsible Use or Development of Technology. Graduates
demonstrate optimized and responsible use of state-of-the-art technologies of their
profession. They possess digital learning abilities, including technical, numerical,
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 and/or technopreneurial skills.
5. Passion for Lifelong Learning. Graduates perform and function in society by taking
responsibility in their quest for further improvement through lifelong learning.
6. Leadership and Organizational Skills. Graduates assume leadership roles and
become leading professionals in their respective disciplines by equipping them with
appropriate organizational skills.
7. Personal and Professional Ethics. Graduates’ manifest integrity and adherence to
moral and ethical principles in their personal and professional circumstances.
8. Resilience and Agility. Graduates demonstrate flexibility and the growth mindset to
adapt and thrive in the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA)
environment.
9. National and Global Responsiveness. Graduates exhibit a deep sense of
nationalism as it complements the need to live as part of the global community where
diversity is respected. They promote and fulfill various advocacies for human and
social development.

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOS)

Based on CMO No. 101 Series of 20217
It is expected that by the time of graduation, the students of the BSECE program shall
have the ability to:
a. apply knowledge of mathematics and science to identify and solve complex
electronics engineering problems using modern and state-of-the-art technologies
and applications critically and creatively.
b. facilitate experiments using the latest applications and modern tools to
methodically device useful data analysis and interpretations.
c. design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic
constraints such as economic, environmental, social, and political, ethical, health
and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability in accordance with standards.
d. display effective leadership and organizational skills in multidisciplinary and
multicultural teams.
e. identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems.

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 f. apply professional and ethical responsibility by implementing the Philippine Code
and other laws and codes in design projects across all specialized and allied
fields
g. communicate effectively while engaging in activities with the engineering
community and with society at large.
h. identify the impact of electronics engineering solutions in a global, economic,
environmental, and societal context by linking the national and global
development advocacies.
i. recognize the need and engage in continuous and life-long learning through
trainings and seminars.
j. apply knowledge of contemporary issue, vitally those involving the profession
k. use techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering
practice
l. apply knowledge of engineering and management principles as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environment
m. understand at least one specialized field of electronics engineering practice

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOS).

1. Demonstrate the key ideas of Electronics Devices and circuits applications.
2. Design and assemble circuits applications of semiconductor devices.

Preface

In this Instructional Material for Electronics Devices and Circuits discuss the Fundamental
concepts of semiconductor devices used in electronics with sample computations needed
in designing circuits applications.
Each lessons reflects Introduction, Learning Objectives/Outcomes together with
Presentations and Discussions. Mathematical analysis of circuits as well as graphical
analysis are also included for a better understanding of the topics.
At the end of each lecture, activities / problems solving and rubrics were included to
assess the knowledge learned by students.

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Practical Experiments
Inclusions of experiments takes part for application of theories and knowledge gained.
Laboratory Manuals for measuring apparatus such as Oscilloscopes, Function
Generators, Voltmeters, Ammeters, Semiconductor and Pulse circuit trainers were also
discussed and safety measures in using such equipment.
Accomplishments Reports are to be submitted at the end of the activities which reflects
data analysis, tables, sketches of waveforms, graphs, computations, observations and
conclusions. Problems encountered and remedies done are involved, making circuits
work properly. Since it is a team work a leader of the group is assigned to give individual
accomplishments of the members.
The students are advised to use Electronics software in their designed work.
Links to Video Recording
Links to video recording are also incorporated for a clearer visualization of the operations
of equipment’s in addition to circuits assembled and designed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page 1

The VMPGO 2

Preface 6

Table of Contents 7

OBE Course Syllabus 10

Lesson 1 Semiconductor Diode

a. Introduction 35
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 35
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 35
d. Link to Video Recording 41
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 e. Activity 41
f. Rubrics of Activity 41

Lesson 2 Diode Equivalent Circuit

a. Introduction
42
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
42
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
42
d. Link to Video Recording
52
e. Activity
52
f. Rubrics of Activity
54

Lesson 3 Wave Shaping Circuits

a. Introduction 55
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 56
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 56
d. Link to Video Recording 67
e. Activity 67
f. Rubrics of Activity 68

Lesson 4 Special Purpose Diode Applications

a. Introduction 69
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 69
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 69
d. Link to Video Recording 78
e. Activity 78
f. Rubrics of Activity 78

Lesson 5 Power Supply

a. Introduction 79
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 79
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 79
d. Link to Video Recording 84
e. Activity 84
f. Rubrics of Activity 85

Lesson 6 Bipolar Junction Transistor

a. Introduction 86
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 b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 86
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 86
d. Link to Video Recording 94
e. Activity 94
f. Rubrics of Activity 95

Lesson 7 Small Signal Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistor

a. Introduction 96
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 96
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 96
d. Link to Video Recording 102
e. Activity 102
f. Rubrics of Activity 102

Lesson 8 Field Effect Transistor

103
a. Introduction
103
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
103
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
111
d. Link to Video Recording
111
e. Activity
112
f. Rubrics of Activity

Lesson 9 Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect Transistor

a. Introduction
112
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
113
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
113
d. Link to Video Recording
118
e. Activity
118
f. Rubrics of activity
119

References 119

Electronics Devices and Circuits Laboratory Manual 120

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Video Presentation Link 153

Certificate of approval for ECEN

COURSE SYLLABUS
Outcomes-based course syllabus

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11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
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 RUBRIC FOR EXPERIMENTS

Title of Project:
Name of
Presenter:

Check one
Self- Peer Assessment Faculty
Assessment Assessment

CRITERIA POINT
S
1 2 3 4
Organizatio Audience Audience Students Student
n can’t has presents present
understan difficulty informatio information
d following n in logical in a logical
presentatio presentation manner interesting
n for no because which the manner
sequence student audience which
of jumps can follow audience
informatio around can follow
n
Content Students Students is Student is Students
knowledge has less uncomfortab at ease demonstrate
knowledge le with the with full
of information content, knowledge
informatio and can but fails to with
n; student answer only elaborate explanations
cannot rudimentary and can
answer questions elaborate
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 questions
pertaining
to the
subject
matter
Visuals Students Students Visuals Students
has no occasional related to used Visuals
visual aid used visuals text and to reinforce
that rarely presentatio screen text
text and n and
presentation presentation
s
Delivery Student Students Students Students
incorrectly incorrectly voice is used a clear
pronounce pronounces clear. voice and
s terms terms Students corrected,
and speaks audience pronounce precise
too quietly members most pronunciati
for have words on of terms
students to difficulty correctly
hear hearing
presentation
Total

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Title of Experiment:
Group Presenter:

Criteria 1 2 3 4 5
Set up of Set of Set up of Set up of All equipment All equipment
equipment equipment not equipment is equipment is accurately accurately
accurate and generally generally placed. placed.
not calibrated. workable with accurate with
Unnecessary several small details All necessary All necessary
equipment is details that that needs supplies on supplies on
added. needs clarification. hand hand
clarification. Very neat and
Some All necessary organize
necessary supplies on
supplies must hand
be search out.

Following Lacks the Show general Show good Show good Show very
Procedure knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of good
the lab lab lab lab procedures. knowledge of
procedures. procedures. procedures. Discuss with the lab
Often requires Requires help Ask help from the peers to procedures.
help from lab from lab peer with solve problems Willingly helps
assistant to assistant with problem in in procedures other students
complete basic some steps some to follow
procedure procedure. procedures. procedures

Data Measurements Measurement Measurements Measurements Measurements

Collection are erroneous, s are are mostly are accurate are both
incomplete, somewhat accurate. with reasonable accurate and
and unprecise. erroneous Observations precision. precise.
Observations and very are generally Observations
are incomplete imprecise. complete are thorough. Measurements
or not included Observations are very
are thorough and
incomplete or may recognize
recorded in possible errors
confusing in data
manner. collections

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 This is for Main Campus use.

Prepared by: Reviewed and checked by: Recommending Approved by:

Approval:

Chairperson/Date Dean/Date Vice President for

Academic Affairs/Date
Engr. Ma Elena Noriega
ECE2973/PECE226
March 12,2023
Faculty/Committee/Date

This is for the Branches and Campuses use.

Prepared by: Reviewed and Recommending Approved by:
checked by: Approval:

Faculty/Committee/Date Head, Academic Director/Date Vice President for

Program/Date Branches & Satellite
Campuses/Date

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Form No. ______________________
Revision No. ___________________
Date of Approval _______________
Semester ______________________
Academic Year _________________

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 Lesson 1
Semiconductor Diode
INTRODUCTION

Materials are being classified into three categories namely: Conductor materials that
electron can flow easily, an insulator material hinders the flow of electrons from atom to
atom and the Semiconductor that lies in between a conductor and an insulator. These
semiconductor materials can conduct electricity if applied with heat, voltage or current.
Basic devices in electronics such as Diodes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits are made
from these semiconductor materials.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Classify materials according to its type.
2. Define a semiconductor material.
3. Determine the two types of semiconductor materials and its composition.
4. Identify the different semiconductor devices used in electronics circuits.

LECTURE DISCUSSION

Materials are being classified into three categories namely: Conductor materials that
electron can flow easily, an insulator materials hinders the flow of electrons from atom to
atom and the Semiconductor that lies in between a conductor and an insulator. These
semiconductor materials can conduct electricity if applied with heat, voltage or current.
Basic devices in electronics such as Diodes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits are made
from these semiconductor materials.

Types of Materials:
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Materials are being classified as Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor.

Conductor was discovered by an English dyer and

Astronomer Stephen Gray December 1666 – February 7,
1736.

A conductor is a material in which an electron can easily

move from atom to atom with an applied voltage. These
materials are metals such as gold, silver, steel, copper,
aluminum, and brass.

Example of
Conductor
\

Insulator is a material that does not allow the

flow of electrons. They oppose current due to
lack of free electrons.

Examples are Glass, Air, Plastic, Rubber,

Porcelain, and Wood. Insulators are used as
protectors such as heat protectors. It is also
used for sound proofing room to lessen
reflection of sound that causes echo. A better Example of Insulator
reception of sound is being heard at a
distance.

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 Electrical Insulator

The figure below shows free electrons in Conductor and Insulator

Free electrons for current flow

Common Conductors and Insulators examples based on classification.

Good Conductors Fair Conductors Insulators

Aluminum Silicon Cotton
Copper Carbon Glass
Gold Human Body Paper
Nickel Humid Air Plastic
Platinum Nichrome Porcelain
Silver Salty Water Rubber
Tungsten Water (pure)

Semiconductors were invented by Michael Faraday. The first person to observe a

semiconductor effect in 1833. Faraday observed that the electrical conduction of silver
sulfide increased with temperature. This is opposite to that observed in conductor
material. Electrical conduction lies on conductivity of material. This is the property of
material that allows the flow of electricity. It is the reciprocal of Resistivity. A
semiconductor material is material in which it has a property that lies between a conductor
and insulator.

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Resistivity and Conductivity of Material
Types of Semiconductor Devices

At absolute temperature semiconductor material acts as insulator If this material was

subjected to heat or meaning an increase in temperature the charge carrier start to move
from valence band to Conduction band. There is an energy gap of 1eV that separates
the valence band and conduction band. This is the energy needed to apply in electrons
from the valence band to reach conduction band. Semiconductor materials are silicon
(Si), germanium (Ge), Galluim Arsenide (GaAs), Galluim Phospide (GaP) and Cadmium
Sulfide (CdS).

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Comparison of Materials

Characteristic Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Low Resistance for High resistance so Between conductor
Resistance
easy current flow current cannot flow and insulator
Atom is tend to Atom is tend to absorb Difficult to free or
release valence valence electron to accept valence
Valence electron and it flow valence layer to make it electron from other
Electron freely from one stable and try avoid atom.
atom to another. electrical of chemical
activity
Conduction and The energy gap is big, Between conductor
valence band so electrons cannot and insulator.
Energy Band
overlap, electron easily move.
easily move

Conductivity of Materials

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There are two types of semiconductor materials. Intrinsic semiconductors are also called
pure semiconductor materials classified as Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide.
Another type of semiconductor material is Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials in which an
impurity atom is being doped to a pure semiconductor material. Impurity atoms called
pentavalent with five (5) valence electrons in their outermost selves, like Arsenic (As),
Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc. If this impurity atom is being added to a pure
semiconductor material like silicon, an N-type Material is being formed. Another impurity
atom with three valence electrons in its outermost selves called trivalent atom is being
doped to a silicon atom will result to what we call P-type material such atoms are Indium
(In), Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), etc. P-type and N-type materials joined together form a
semiconductor device called Diode. The figure below represents bonding of atoms to
produce extrinsic semiconductor materials.

Covalent Bonding of Pure Semiconductor Material and P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

Material
being doped with impurity Boron atom

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Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 1: (to be uploaded to teams)
1. Define in your own word semiconductor material.
2. Draw an N-type and P type covalent bonding of atoms using gallium arsenide
doped with pentavalent and trivalent atom.
3. Summarize the three types of materials giving emphasis on their properties.
4. Investigate on different semiconductor devices, its construction
and the inventors involved on these devices.
5. Differentiate the three types of materials

Rubrics of Activity:
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but

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 neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Lesson 2
Diode Equivalent Circuit
INTRODUCTION
A diode is one of a semiconductor device formed by joining a P-type and N-type extrinsic
semiconductor materials. There are many applications of diode in electronics circuits.
Just to name a few, this semiconductor device is use as a rectifier for power supply, that
is changing alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a switch for digital circuits
which functions as a logic gates, it can also be used as a temperature sensor, an over
voltage protector, a radio demodulation for radio broadcast, a wave shaping circuits called
clippers, a voltage regulator for whatever desired voltage needed to power other
electronics gadget. It is very interesting to know how this device operates. A very precious
device in electronics. Let us explore the properties of this device.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the diode and explain how electrons and holes flow in the junction.
2. Know the diode equivalent circuit and plot its characteristic curve.
3. Identify the different types of diodes and its function.
4. Analyze diode operation in circuit and determine circuit characteristics.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
There are two types of diode according to elements used namely Silicon diode and
Germanium diode. A silicon diode in order to conduct needs a forward voltage of 0.7V
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while germanium diode is 0.3V. Below is a sketch of characteristic curve of diode and its
actual picture and symbol.

To sketch the characteristic curve of the diode you need to vary voltages of diode and
measure current flowing during forward and reverse bias condition. Below is a circuit used
to obtain the characteristic curve of a diode. The measured voltage and current must be
reflected on a table. Voltage for X axis and Current for Y axis. Then sketch the graph

Special Purpose Diode

Gunn diode is a type of diode that consists of two electrodes. This special diode is a
negative differential diode used for low power oscillator to generate microwave signal.
It has an N-type semiconductor made of majority carriers called electrons. This
semiconductor device use what we called Gunn effects. A rapid production in
fluctuations of current when the voltage applied to this device exceeds a critical value and

43
that microwave power is generated. Gunn diodes are used to build oscillators for
generating microwaves with frequencies ranging from 10 GHz to THz. This is also named
Negative Differential Resistance device or a transferred electron device oscillator.

Zener Diode is a special purpose diode use as a voltage regulator. It consist of heavily
doped p-n junction, designed to conduct during reverse condition, To put it in operation,
a certain specified voltage must be reached .The reverse operation here is what we
called Zener effect .The Zener effect is a type of electrical breakdown that occurs in a
reverse-biased PN junction. Here the electric field enables tunneling of electrons from the
valence to the conduction band of a semiconductor, leading to a large number of free
minority carriers which suddenly increase the reverse current.

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Varactor Diode is also called Varicap diode and it is used to store electric charge. This
diode also operates during reverse condition and widely used in radio frequency circuits
such as voltage control oscillator and frequency and phase modulators. It is used to vary
capacitance of the circuit with an application of control voltage.

Laser Diode is an optoelectronic device which changes electrical energy into light
energy to produce high intensity light. In P-N junction the diode acts as a laser
medium. Instead of using silicon, an alloy of aluminum and gallium arsenide are use.
Here electrons are injected in a diode and they combine with holes and their excess
energy is converted into photons. More incoming electrons produce more photons.
Laser is used for fiber communication, barcode reader, laser pointer, ,CD/DVD/Blu-
ray disc reading/recording, laser printing and scanning and light beam illumination

Construction Symbol

Light Emitting Diode or LED is a semiconductor device that produces light when current
flows through it. Electrons recombine with holes and release energy in form of photons.
Color of light depends on the energy required to cross band gap. LEDs are of different
colors. Example is white light LED, this is form by using individual LEDs that emit primary
colors such as red-green and blue and mixing this colors to form white light. Another way
of producing it is by using phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from blue or

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UV LED to broad-spectrum white light similar to a fluorescent lamp. There are other colors
of LED like red, blue yellow and green.

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) in an organic light-emitting diode, the

electroluminescent material composing the emissive layer of the diode are an organic
compound. The organic material is electrically conductive due to the delocalization of pi
electrons causes by conjugation over all part of the molecule, and the material therefore
functions as an organic semiconductor. The organic materials can be small organic
molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.

The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving
voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut. Polymer LEDs have the
added benefit of printable and flexible displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual
displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and
televisions.

Schottky Diode known as Schottky barrier diode or hot carrier diode is a semiconductor
diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward voltage
drop and a very fast switching action. The semiconductor material is N-type silicon acts
as an anode while the metal acts as a cathode. This diode is used for high frequency
rectifier application. Figure shows the construction, symbol and its characteristic curve.

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`

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy in order to produce

electric current. It is also called photo detector, light detector, and photo sensor. This
diode works during reverse bias condition. The figure shows the symbol its construction
and picture of the actual device.

The different materials used for photo diodes are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), Galluim
Phosphide (GaP), Indium Galluim Arsenide (lnGaAs) Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT,
HgCdTe) etc. The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy
strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. Therefore, holes in the region
move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will
be generated because of its movement.

Photodiodes are used for consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, medical devices and the receivers for infrared remote control devices
used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications
either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used.

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Diode Equivalent Circuit
The figure shows the equivalent circuits of diodes for its operation.

Practical Diode

For forward biased condition the diode acts as a closed

switch and during reverse biased it acts as an open
switch

For Ideal diode the diode acts as a closed switch with voltage across the diode is zero
and during reverse condition it acts as an open switch.

Another model used for diode is what we called Piecewise Linear Model. This is
obtained by analyzing the characteristic curve of diode. Drawing a straight line on the
graph we may be able to determine the average resistance of diode that is a change in
voltage of diode divided by the change in current of the diode.

Rave = ΔV/ΔI
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Figure below is the diode characteristic curve and its equivalent model during forward
condition. And during reverse condition the diode is equivalent to a resistor with very
high resistance.

Piecewise Linear Model

Diode Circuits:
Diodes can be connected in series that is end to end connection or even in parallel
connection that is connected by their ends. Below are circuit’s connections of diode.

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 Series Circuit Diode Parallel Circuit Diode Combination

Another circuit connection of a diode is a combination of series and parallel diode. The
same principles for computation of series and parallel circuits were applied. An example
of circuit is shown below.

Power Supply Circuit is a device that supplies an electric power. It converts electric
current from source to correct voltage, current and frequency to power the load. All power
supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in the form of electric
current from a source, and one or more power output connections that deliver current to
the load. The source power may come from electric power grid, such as an electrical
outlet, energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators,
solar power converters, or another power supply. In electronics circuits to operate certain
equipment we need a power supply. These are called rectifier. A rectifier is one

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application of diode that is changing an AC voltage into a DC voltage. We have here a
simple power supply.

Operation of Power Supply Circuit :

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The circuit is what we called a bridge type rectifier power supply which produced half
cycle of the input voltage during positive and negative cycle of the input voltage. With an
application of positive half cycle input voltage, diode D2 and D3 conducts setting this
diode in forward bias condition, and the positive half cycle input voltage developed across
the load. The same is happening during negative cycle of input voltage wherein diode D1
and D4 also conducts which result to a positive cycle of voltage dropped across the load.
Capacitor C serve as filter device to smoothen the output voltage across the load. The
charging and discharging effect of capacitor contributes to change the pulsating DC
output to a better DC voltage. More capacitors connected to the circuit will produce a
perfect DC voltage across the load.

Waveforms for Bridge Type Rectifier Circuit

Link to Video Recording: (link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 2: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Solve all voltages and currents of the circuit given silicon diode and supply voltage
of 5V.

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2. Name the different diodes and give its functions.

3. Draw the following rectifier circuits and discuss in your own words its operation
a. Half wave Rectifier Circuit
b. Full wave Rectifier Circuit
c. Bridge type Rectifier Circuit

4. Solve voltage and current of the following worded circuit problem.

a. A Battery of 20V is connected to 5 pcs silicon diode in series with cut-in voltage
(VT) of 0.5V and forward resistance of diode (RF) of 20 ohms. Using piecewise
linear model determine the current flowing in the circuit and the voltage drop across
the three diodes show your solution.
b. Two diodes connected in a parallel are in series with a load of 1k ohms and is
supplied with a battery of 12V. What is the total current flowing in the circuit, the
voltage across the diode and voltage of the load resistor if both diodes are silicon
diodes. Repeat computation if one diode is silicon and other one is germanium.
Show your solution and analysis.

5. Compare piecewise linear model of diode to an Ideal Model.

53
Activity 2.

Sketch the characteristic curve of the diode using the circuit. Vary voltages of diode
shown on table and measure current flowing during forward and reverse bias
condition. Fill up the table below. The Measured voltages and currents of diode
are values needed to sketch the graph. Let Voltages for X axis and Currents for Y
axis.

54
Rubrics of Activity:
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Lesson 3
Wave shaping Circuits
INTRODUCTION
A wave shaping circuit is a circuit which change the shape of a waveform.
There are two types of waveshaping circuit namely: Linear wave shaping circuit
consists of linear elements like resistor, capacitor and inductor. This circuit produce
an output waveform different from its input waveform. The parameters such as
resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency, are constant. Meaning they do not
change with current or voltage. The process used here is what we called filtering.
Examples are RL and RC Filter circuits. Another wave shaping circuit is what we called
a nonlinear wave shaping circuit. It consists of elements such as diode and transistor.

55
With regards to this circuit the parameters are not constant. They vary with current and
voltage. An example is a clipper circuit.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define a wave shaping circuit and know the different types according to elements
used.
2. Identify the different types of clippers, clampers and voltage multipliers circuit
and analyze the output waveform of the circuit with application of different signal
waveform such as sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and etc.
3. Analyze the output waveform of the clipper circuit with application of different signal
waveform such as sine wave, square wave and triangular wave.
4. Solve circuit problems regarding wave shaping circuits using mathematical
analysis.
5. Design and assemble the following circuit: clipper, clamper and voltage multiplier.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
A wave shaping circuit is a circuit that changed the shape of a waveform. There are two
types of waveshaping circuit according to the elements used:
Linear wave shaping circuit made of passive elements like resistor, capacitor and
inductor. The parameters describing the elements such as resistance, capacitance
inductance, frequency and etc. are constant even when voltage and current are being
varied. The process involve in this circuit is called filtering. The circuit is what we called
filters. And to define it a filter is a circuit which passes a certain frequency of signal while
rejecting other frequencies. Filters are classified as follows:
1. Passive Filters - a filter circuit made up of passive elements like resistors,
capacitors and inductors that pass a band of frequencies while rejecting other
frequencies to pass through.
2. Active Filters - a filter circuit composed of active elements such as diodes,
transistors and operational amplifiers in addition to resistors and capacitors and
passes a certain frequency while rejecting other frequencies to pass through.

`
56
 Passive Filter Active Filter
Passive filters are classified according to frequency response curve namely:
1. Lowpass Filter – a filter circuit that pass all frequencies below the critical
frequencies (fc) while rejecting all frequencies above that critical frequency.
2. High pass Filter – a filter circuit that pass all frequencies above the critical
frequency (fc) and reject all frequencies above that critical frequency.
3. Bandpass Filter – a filter circuit that reject all frequencies below lower cutoff
frequency and higher cutoff frequency.
4. Band stop filter or Notch filter – a filter circuit that pass a certain band of
frequencies from lower cutoff frequencies to higher cutoff frequencies.

Shown below are response curve of different Passive Filters and its circuits.

High Pass RC Filter Low Pass RC Filter

57
 Band Pass RC Filter Band Stop RC Filter

Active filter is a filter made up of operational amplifier and passive components such as
resistors and capacitors. These filters are classified according to the inventor. They are
Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Elliptic filters. They are used as low pass, high pass,
band pass and notch or band stop filters. The frequency response curve is shown below
and a circuit of active filters.

These are example of active filter circuits with the use of an operational amplifier

Active Low Pass Filter Active High Pass Filter

58
 Active Band Pass Filter Active Band Stop Filter

Another application of diode is what we called Clipper circuit. This is a circuit which clips
off a portion of the input waveform. Clipper circuits are classified according to the polarity
of the waveform that will be clip off, the type of connection whether series or parallel and
an addition of DC bias voltage.

Clipper Circuit input/output waveform

Below are clipper circuits classification

1. Negative Series Clipper Circuit
2. Positive Series Clipper Circuit
3. Negative Parallel/Shunt Clipper Circuit
4. Positive Parallel/Shunt Clipper Circuit
59
 5. Negative Biased Clipper Circuit
6. Positive Biased Clipper Circuits
7. Combination Clipper Circuit

Negative Series Clipper is circuit in which the diode is in series with the input signal and
clips off the negative portion of the waveform. During positive half cycle of input, diode
conducts. The output is equal to the input voltage Vmax that is when diode is consider
ideal VD = 0V and during negative half cycle diode is open then the output goes to zero.
If the diode is a practical diode meaning using silicon diode with VD = 0.7V, then the
output during positive cycle is equal to Vmax – 0.7V.

Positive Series Clipper circuit is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input
voltage and that it clips off the positive portion of the input signal. During positive input
the diode is not conducting, the output voltage is zero but during negative cycle the diode
is conducting if diode is considered as ideal diode the output will be equal to the input
voltage Vmax. For a practical diode the voltage of diode VD = 0.7V then the output
voltage during conducting state will be
equal to Vmax – 0.7.

Positive parallel/shunt clipper circuit is a clipper circuit in which the diode is in parallel with
the input and clips off the positive portion of the input signal. During the positive half cycle

60
of the input signal the diode is conducting. For ideal diode the voltage of diode is zero, so
the output goes to zero. During the negative half cycle of the input the diode is open, and
the output voltage is equal to the input voltage of Vmax. For a practical diode, the output
voltage during positive input is VD = 0.7, then during negative input the output voltage is
equal to input voltage of Vmax.

Negative Parallel/Shunt Clipper circuit is a circuit in which the diode is in parallel with the
input and that it clips off the negative portion of the input signal. During the positive half
cycle of the input signal, the diode is not conducting, and the output voltage is equal to
Vmax, that is when diode is ideal. With negative half cycle of the input the diode conducts
so that the output voltage goes to zero. Considering practical silicon diode with VD= 0.7V
the output voltage during positive cycle is Vmax and during negative cycle the output
goes to voltage of the diode VD= 0.7V

Positive parallel/shunt clipper with positive bias VT is a circuit in which the diode is in
parallel with the input and an additional positive bias is connected in series with the diode.
The operation starts when input is positive and above the value of VT the diode will
conduct, and the output voltage goes to the value of VT. During negative input the diode
is not conducting, and the output voltage is equal to the input of –Vmax. For a practical
diode with VD = 0.7V, the output voltage for positive input above VT, is VT + 0.7 and
during negative input, the output voltage is equal to –Vmax.

61
Positive parallel / shunt clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in
parallel with the input and a negative bias connected in series with the diode. During
positive input the diode is forward bias and output voltage is equal to VT. With negative
input less than VT the output voltage is equal to the remaining part of the negative input.

Negative series clipper with positive bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with
the input and a positive bias voltage connected in series with the load resistor at the
output terminal. With a positive input voltage less than VT of the diode is not conducting,
the output voltage is equal to VT. If the input is more than the value of VT, the diode will
conduct and the output voltage goes to the value of the remaining input voltage. During
negative input is equal to or less than the value of VT, diode will not conduct and therefore
the output terminal the voltage is equal to the bias voltage VT.

Negative series clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with
the input signal and clips off a portion of negative input. During positive input with a value
greater than VT the diode conducts when the output voltage is equal to the value of the

62
input voltage. During negative cycle with a value less than the voltage VT, the diode is
not conducting the output voltage is equal to the value of VT.

Positive series clipper with positive bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the
input signal and a positive bias connected in series with the load. During positive input
less than voltage VT, the diode conducts and the output voltage are equal to the applied
input. If input voltage is greater than the value of VT the diode will not conduct so the
output voltage will be the value of VT. During negative input in which the value is less
than the VT the diode conducts and output voltage is equal to the input voltage.

Positive series clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with
the input signal and a positive bias connected in series with the load. During positive input
the diode is not conducting, the output voltage is equal to VT. During negative input with
a value greater than the value of the VT the diode is still not conducting the output is equal
to VT. If the negative input voltage is less than VT that’s the time the diode conducts and
the output voltage will follow the input voltage.

63
Clamper circuit is a circuit composed of capacitor, diode and resistor in which the input
voltage is shifted above or below a reference level. The circuit is also termed as DC
Restorer circuit. In analyzing a clamper circuit, the following steps should be followed:
• Analyze the circuit in which the diode must be placed in forward biased condition
• Assume that the capacitor is fully charge to the value of the input voltage that is in
order to charge it to 100% the charging time must be equal to 5RC or 5 Time
Constant.
• Determine the value of voltage across the capacitor by Kirchhoff's voltage law. You
can assume an ideal or practical diode.

• Solve for the output voltage

• Then analyze the circuit in which the diode be in reverse bias condition
• Let the voltage of capacitor retain its charge and diode acts as an open switch.
• Compute for the output voltage
• Sketch the waveform that is input waveform versus the output waveform

Different types of Clamper Circuits:

1. Negative Clamper Circuit
2. Positive Clamper Circuit
3. Biased Clamper Circuit

Negative Clamper Circuit is a circuit composed of a resistor-capacitor and diode wherein

the output is of the same shape with the input but shifted below the positive axis.

Analysis:

During positive voltage the diode is forward bias and acts as a closed switch, the voltage
across the output is voltage of diode of VD = 0.7V. Computing for the voltage of capacitor,
VC is equal to input voltage V. During negative input the diode is off, the capacitor voltage
retained its charge to V. The output voltage now is equal to the input voltage V plus
voltage of the capacitor VC = V. The total voltage of the output is 2V.

64
 Negative Clamper Circuit

Positive Clamper Circuit is a circuit composed of resistor -capacitor and diode wherein
the output is of the same shape with the input but shifted above the positive axis.

Analysis:

During negative voltage the diode is forward biased and acts as a closed switch, the
voltage across the output is voltage of diode of VD = - 0.7V. Computing for the voltage of
capacitor, VC is equal to input voltage - V. During positive input the diode is off, the
capacitor voltage retained its charge to - V. The output voltage now is equal to the input
voltage - V plus voltage of the capacitor VC = -V. The total output voltage is -2V.

Positive Clamper Circuit

65
Positive Biased Clamping Circuit

Negative Biased Clamping Circuit

Voltage Multiplier is a circuit composed of diodes and capacitors used to multiply or

increase the output voltage. An example is a Voltage Doubler. This Voltage Doubler
circuit is composed of two clamper circuits wherein the output voltage is two times that of
the amplitude of the input voltage. For a Voltage Tripler the output is three times the
amplitude of the input and Voltage Quadrupler,in which the output is four times that of
the input and so forth. During positive input the D1 on while D2 off the capacitor C1 will
charge to the value of input Vmax. During negative input D1 is off and D2 is on and charge
the capacitor C2 to Vmax. The total voltage across the capacitors is 2Vmax.

66
Voltage Multiplier Circuit

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 3: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Define on your own words the following:
a. Wave shaping Circuit.
b. Filter Circuit
c. Clipper Circuit
d. Clamper Circuit
e. Voltage Multiplier Circuit
2. Discuss the circuit operation of a positive and negative biased clamping circuit.
3. Create your own Clipper circuit, at least 5 circuits. Sketch the input waveform
versus output waveform. Prove the magnitude of the output waveform
produced by mathematical analysis.
4. Draw a Quadrupler Voltage Multiplier Circuit and discuss how the circuit
operates. Prove that the output voltage is equal to four times of the input
voltage. Show your solution by mathematical analysis.
67
 5. Solve problems for the following circuits:

a. Clipper circuit
b. Clamper circuit

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor

Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

68
 Lesson 4
Special Purpose Diode Application

INTRODUCTION

Special Purpose Diode like Zener diode, Photodiodes, Schottky diode, Varactor diode,
PIN diode, Tunnel diode and Laser diode are made from an ordinary PN Junction Diode.
The properties of this PN Junction Diode were altered in such a way as to have other
special applications. To mention a few, Photo Diode can be used for compact disc
players, smoke detectors, medical devices and sensors. Zener Diode can act as a voltage
regulator for power supply. A Laser diode can emit light used such as barcode reader.
Laser pointers, CD/DVD/ Blu-ray Disc reading, Laser printing, Laser Scanning and Light
beam illumination.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the Special Purpose Diodes
2. Understand the construction and operation of devices.
3. Analyze and assemble circuit application.
4. Solve circuit characteristics by mathematical analysis.
LECTURE DISCUSSION
Special Purpose diodes are form from an ordinary PN junction diode. Altering its
properties result to execute specific function of the device. To begin with let me discuss
the commonly used special purpose diode the Zener diode.

Zener diode is a special purpose diode designed to operate during its reverse bias
condition. The PN material is heavily doped compared to an ordinary diode. This results
in a thin junction layer and a reverse breakdown voltage lower than an ordinary diode.
The value of breakdown voltage depends on its doping process. Typical values of
breakdown voltages range from 3V to 300V. Shown below is construction of Zener diode
with heavily doped p and n type material and a very thin Junction layer.

69
 Zener Diode Construction

The figure below is an actual image of Zener diode and its characteristic curve. The diode
operates during reverse bias condition (quadrant III). During forward condition it acts as
an ordinary diode with a voltage drop of 0.7V/0.3V. Shown in quadrant III, reverse
operating region, the reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode and the leakage current
due to flow of minority carrier.

Actual Image V/I characteristic Curve

Zener Diode Circuit application:

The Zener diode in a circuit is use as a single diode clipper circuit. During positive input
the diode conducts in its reverse bias condition. The output voltage is equal to VZ and
during negative input voltage the diode is in forward condition and acts as an ordinary
diode with VD of 0.7V

The circuit below is a double clipping circuit. During positive voltage DZ2 conducts in
reverse condition while diode DZ1 conducts in forward bias condition. The output voltage

70
is equal to the sum of VZ2 + VD1, and during negative voltage DZ1 conducts in reverse
bias condition while DZ2 in forward condition. The output goes now to VDZ1 + VD2.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator:

With a DC input voltage, the Zener diode will conduct and produce an output voltage
equal to the voltage of the Zener VZ. The total current of the circuit is equal to VDC minus
VZ divided by Rs and the current of the load resistor RL is equal to VZ divided by RL

Vin – Vs
IT = ---------------
Rs
VZ
IL = ---------
RL
Vo = VZ

Light Emitting Diode a special purpose diode made from a heavily doped semiconductor
material that emit a color light when forward biased. During this condition electrons
recombines with the holes from valence band released energy to produce photons. These
devices are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy. Light
Emitting Diode LEDs are made semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Galluim Indium Nitride
(GalnN)

71
The forward voltage of an LED is between 1.8V and 3.3V. It varies by the color of LED.
A red LED drops a voltage of 1.7V to 2.0V. A blue LED drop around 3 to 3.3 V.

An LED matrix is a grid of lights arranged into rows and columns. LED stands for Light
Emitting Diode, so like with other diodes, electricity flows through it in only one direction
– from anode (+) to cathode (-); doing so illuminates the light.

72
Characteristic Curve of Light Emitting Diode

Schottky Diode is a special purpose diode made of metal such as gold, tungsten,
platinum, chromium, or silicide which acts as the anode and an N type semiconductor
material as a cathode. The voltage drop of this diode is 0.2V and is less than the ordinary
diode. Schottky diode is fast switching diode because of low junction capacitance. Without
biased electrons on N material have low energy as being compared to the electrons in
metal. If forward biased is applied to the diode, electrons in cathode have sufficient energy
to cross the barrier and enter metal with a tremendous amount of energy.

73
Circuit Application

The Schottky diode is connected across the collector and base terminal of transistor to
improve the switching time of the device.

Varactor Diode is a special purpose diode design to vary the capacitance of a p-n junction
by an application of a reverse voltage across the diode. As we increase reverse bias
voltage applied across the diode the width of junction depletion region also increases
which result to decrease in junction capacitance. On the hand if reverse voltage applied
across the diode is decrease the width of the depletion region also decreases and result
to a low junction capacitance. This is how the varactor diode works. The term varactor
comes from variable capacitor also referred as Varicap

74
The characteristic curve of varactor diode shows that as reversed voltage increases the
capacitance of the diode decreases. The symbol of varactor diode is an anode with
cathode resembles as capacitor.

Symbol

PIN Diode is a special purpose diode design with an intrinsic semiconductor material in
between a P type and N type material. The P type and N type are heavily doped and used
for ohmic contact with very low resistance. The wide depletion layer of intrinsic material
has a very high reverse breakdown voltage which results to a very low capacitance during
reverse bias condition. Also having a wide depletion region, the volume for light reception
is increased that is light striking crystal lattice releases holes and electrons drawn out
away from the depletion region by application of reverse bias voltage. This makes PIN
diode to be used as photo detector. When forward biased the intrinsic material is forced
into conduction, as a result the free electron in this material also increases thereby
decreasing the resistance of this material. Thus, the PIN diode also acts as a current
controlled resistance.

Construction

75
Application of the PIN Diode:
• RF switch: Due to the wide intrinsic layer the level of capacitance decreases. As a
result, the level of isolation increased during reversed bias. Making it an ideal RF
switch
• High Voltage Rectifier: This intrinsic layer during reversed bias increases and thus
allowing higher voltage tolerance between the junctions.
• Photodetector: The conversion of light into electric current depends on the
depletion region in a photo diode. Due to the increase in depletion region, volume
of conversion is increased and the efficiency of photo diode too. Hence PIN diode
is used as photodiode.

Tunnel Diode is a special purpose diode that exhibits a negative resistance when a
forward voltage is applied across the P-N junction. Meaning the current on the diode
decreases when voltage is increased. This phenomenon was discovered by Leo Esaki
who invented the tunnel diode. He observed that if semiconductor diode is heavily doped
with impurities, it exhibits negative resistance. Tunneling effect means that there is a flow
of electrons across the small depletion region from N side conduction band to a P side
valence band. This tunneling effect is happening in heavily doped semiconductor
materials. Shown below are construction of tunnel diode and the existence of a narrow
depletion region with positive and negative ions.

Laser diode is a special diode designed to convert electrical

energy in a form of light. The drop of electrons from higher
energy level to a lower energy level, radiation is the form of
an emitted photon.

76
Construction of Laser Diode

The laser diode is made up of two doped gallium

arsenide layers for P and N type materials joined
together. Selenium, aluminum, silicon is used as
doping elements. In gallium arsenide diodes, the
release of energy in recombination process is in
the form of light or photons. Whereas the silicon
diode recombination is not in the form of photons.

The main steps required for producing a coherent beam of light in lasers diodes are light
absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.

Light absorption is the process of absorbing energy from external energy sources. A dc
source is applied on a material which causes the electrons to jump to a higher level, the
conduction band leaving in the valence band a hole. The pair of electron and hole is
due to the absorption of external energy.

Spontaneous emission is the process of emitting light or photons naturally while electrons
falling to the lower energy state. The electrons in valence band are in a lower energy
state. When these electrons reach the conduction band, they leave the valence band
with free holes. Meaning the free electrons in the conduction band have a higher energy
level compared with the holes in valence band. The electrons in the conduction band will
recombine with the holes in the valence band, that is it will fall to the lower energy state
and recombines with holes and releases energy in a form of light.

Stimulated emission is the process by which excited electrons or free electrons are
stimulated to fall into the lower energy state by releasing energy in the form of light. The
stimulated emission is an artificial process. An incident or external photon is applied to
the free electron in conduction band which will force the free electron to recombine with
the hole in valence band. In this case, each incident photon will generate two photons.

77
Link to Video Recording: (link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 4: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Enumerate the different types of special purpose diode and give its functions.
2. Discuss in your own words the constructions of the following Special Purpose
diode: Zener Diode, Varactor Diode, Schottky Diode, Laser Diode, Light Emitting
Diode, and PIN Diode.
3. Solve at least two circuit problems (Mathematical Analysis) regarding Special
Purpose Diodes.
4. Give a circuit application of the following Special Purpose Diode. Sketch the circuit
and discuss how it operates. Zener Diode, Laser Diode, Varactor Diode, Tunnel
Diode and Light Emitting Diode.
5. Analyzing how the tunnel diode operates give emphasis on tunneling effect.

Rubrics of Assessment:

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

78
 Lesson 5
Power Supply

INTRODUCTION
Power Supply is the main heart of electronics circuit without it, the circuit will not operate.
All electronics equipment was operated by applying voltage or current using power
supply. There are 3 types of power supply namely: Regulated Power Supply, Unregulated
Power Supply and Switch Mode Power Supply
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Determine the types of power supply and know their differences.
2. Discuss how the power supply circuits operate.
3. Solve problems regarding power supply circuits.
4. Assemble a Power Supply Circuits
5. Measure voltages and currents of power supply using VOM and
Oscilloscope

LECTURE DISCUSSION

Power Supply is an electrical device that supplies voltage or current to the load.
There are three types of power supply namely: Regulated Power Supply, Unregulated
Power Supply and Switch Mode Power Supply.

Regulated Power Supply converts an unregulated AC to a constant DC. It ensures that

the output will remain constant even if the input changes. The components are
Transformer, Rectifier, Filter, Regulator, and the Load

79
 Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

The transformer is used to step down a 220V AC to desired value of AC voltage and it
depends on the turn ration (N) of the primary winding and the secondary winding. The
relationship regarding voltage is that Np/Ns = Vp/Vs, whereas for current Np/Ns = Is/Ip.

The rectifier is a circuit composed of diodes. It can be a Half wave, Full wave, and Bridge
Type. This stage is used to convert AC to pulsating DC. There are important parameters
that we should be familiar with in this circuit like Vdc or average DC voltage and VRMS
or effective voltage. Vdc is defined as the area of a curve of v, I divided by the base of
alternation. For a half wave rectifier, the Vdc = Vmax/ and a full wave Vdc = 2Vmax/.
The formula varies depending on the waveform that is to be rectified. This formula is used
for Sine waves. With regards to the VRMS or Effective voltage it is defined as the square
root of the square of the area of the curve of vi divided by the base of alternation,
(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)2
√ and Vrms = 0.707 Amax.
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Full Wave Bridge Type Rectifier

80
Filter circuits are composed of capacitors
that are used to flatten the pulsating DC
voltage from the output of a rectifier circuit
to attain a perfect DC output voltage
waveform. The charging and discharging of
capacitor fulfill this action. The charging
voltage of capacitor is solved using the
formula VC = E (1-e -t/RC) and discharging
voltage of capacitor VD = E e -t/RC, where E
is the voltage applied in capacitor, t is the
time to charge or discharge capacitor and
RC is the time constant. In order to fully
charge the capacitor to maximum value of
E, the time to charge the capacitor should
be 5RC and if t is equal to product of RC
then the capacitor will be charge to 63% of
E for discharging effect, we can apply the
formula to determine the discharging
voltage of capacitor. Recall the different
filters discussed in Course Topic 2.

Filter Circuits

41

Regulator circuit keeps the output voltage of a power supply at a constant value, and this
is done using Zener diode. The Zener breakdown voltage of diode influences the output
81
of the power supply circuit. With the first circuit Vo = VZ + VBE, and in the second circuit
Vo = VZ. Meaning the output voltage is held constant using this equation.

Unregulated Power Supply: The Absence of Regulator circuit makes the power supply
unregulated. In the circuit the AC voltage is stepped down by transformer to a certain
value. The reduced AC voltage is being rectified by the bridge type diode connection.
Rectified, meaning changing AC to DC. And this is filtered by capacitor to produce a
pulsating DC voltage. No elimination of rippled DC took place since no Regulator circuit
is connected in the output before it is being fed to the load.

Switch Mode Power Supply: A power supply that uses a switching regulator to convert
electrical power efficiently. It transfers power from DC or AC sources to a DC load while
converting voltage and current characteristics. There are three basic switch mode circuit
– Buck, Boost and
Buck-Boost. They differ on how transistor switch, inductor and capacitor are connected
in circuit.

82
Analyzing circuit operation of Buck SMPS with an input voltage of +Vin and transistor
base held on state, the transistor acts as a closed switch, current will flow from input to
the inductor and the load making the diode in reversed biased condition. This current flow
will produce a magnetic field in a coil + in the left side and -v right side and will charge
capacitor with +v. If the transistor now is set to off state, the induced magnetic field of
inductor will collapse making v drop on inductor left side and right side + v. The negative
v will forward bias the diode which will pull inductor left terminal to ground until such time
that the capacitor discharges its voltage depending on the time of output terminal since
𝑡𝑜𝑛
transistor is in off state. Vo of the circuit is Vo=(𝑡𝑜𝑛+𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 ) 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Analyzing Buck-Boost SMPS, here the transistor is placed in series with the input voltage
and the inductor. With positive vin and transistor base is on state, the diode is reverse
bias which isolate the input to the output terminal. This will produce magnetic field to the
inductor making upper side +v and lower side –v, all VIN will be across the inductor. If
transistor now is off it will be induced negative –v on upper side of inductor and +v lower
side making diode forward bias, the voltage across inductor will be the supply voltage to
the load and will charge capacitor.

83
Problem solving for power supply:
1. A sine wave of 20 voltage peak to peak is connected to a half wave rectifier with
an output load resistor of 1 K ohms. Determine the average voltage measured at
the output. The diode is ideal.

Solution:
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 20
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = = = 10𝑉
2 2

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 10 𝑉
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 3.18𝑉
 3.1416

2. Using problem 1 if the input voltage is a square wave of 5 V peak specifying that
the diode used is a silicon diode, determine the average voltage across the load
and the current of the circuit.

Solution:

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 0.7 𝑉

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 5 − 0.7
𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 2.15 𝑉
2 2

𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2.15 𝑉
𝐼 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 2.15 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑙 1𝑘Ω

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)
Activity:
Assignment No. 5:
1. Define in your own words Power Supply
2. Differentiate the three (3) types of Power supply.
3. Discuss the Operation of three (3) Switching Mode Power Supply
4. Sketch the following circuits:
84
 a. Full wave bridges type Power Supply
b. Buck Switching Mode Power Supply
5. Compare the three-power supply circuits.
a. Regulated Power supply
b. Unregulated power supply
c. Switch Mode Power supply

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

85
 Lesson 6
Bipolar Junction Transistor
INTRODUCTION
Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three terminal device used to amplify a voltage or
current of a certain circuit. This transistor can be operated as a switch if the device is to
be designed for saturation and cutoff region. With amplifier application, the input voltage
is measured at the output terminal the device in working in its active region. There are
many applications of this device to name a few; the device is used for digital circuits
logic gate, filters, rectifier, and oscillators.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define a Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Understand the construction and operation of devices.
3. Know its circuit application.
4. Analyze Transistor circuit and solve its characteristics by mathematical analysis.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
The transistor is a three terminal device that is made from a front to front or back-to-back
connection of two diodes. We call it an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor. As shown
by its construction below.

86
Bipolar Junction Transistor Operation:

With bipolar junction transistor the device’s actions depend in the holes and electrons
carriers. The emitter region is heavily doped. The collector is doped much lighter than the
base region that is ten times lighter than the base doping. The collector current is due to
the flow of charge carrier injected from a heavily doped emitter into the base where they
are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector.

The symbol of transistor is shown below. The arrow represents the type of emitter
material. For the first figure, the arrow of emitter is pointing out of the device, this transistor
is NPN transistor. With regards to the second figure the emitter arrow is pointing into the
device the transistor is a PNP transistor. The arrow pointing into the device for emitter
terminal represents it is a P material and arrow pointing out of the device, the emitter
material is a P type material.

87
The three terminals of transistors are Base (B), Emitter (E), and Collector (C). To put the
transistor in operation we need to bias the transistor. Biasing is the correct polarity of
voltage that you will apply in its terminal depending on how you will use it. It is also a way
of how to establish its operating point. As for example if you are going to use it as an
amplifier you have to know that Q point on its characteristic curve note that Q point lies
in between the saturation

and cutoff region for transistor working as an amplifier. You must be familiar with the 3-
amplifier configuration. Using the transistor as a switch you must know what its region of
operations is. The characteristic curve below is a graph of voltage versus current of the
transistor.

As seen on the graph the voltage VCE is from a value 0 to 12V. If VCE is increase collector
current (IC) also increase. The base current (IIB) increases only to a certain value of VCE
until such time that it reaches what we call saturation or maximum level. Also shown are
the three (3) operating regions namely: Saturation region, Active region, and the Cutoff
region.
Saturation region can be obtained when IC current = VCC/RC, that is if VCE = 0V. Cutoff
region is obtain when IB = 0A and that IC= 0A since IC =βIb. The two regions of
operations are used for transistor switches. The Active region lies in between the cutoff
and saturation region. With this region the transistor is working as an amplifier. The DC
load line is dependent on the output equation of the circuit. Using circuit analysis, we can
determine the output equation and plot the DC load line for the following condition that is
when VCE = 0V, IC = VCC / RC and when IC = 0 A then VCE = VCC.

𝑉𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐𝑅𝑐 setting VCE = 0 V

88
 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐

𝑉𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 setting IC = 0 A

Fixed Bias Circuit

There are three (3) regions of operation of transistors namely:
1. Saturation region – this region of operation is used when transistor will act as a
closed switch. For its operation, the input and output terminal of transistor must be
forward bias. Another condition for transistor to work as closed switch, the value of
voltage across the collector-emitter terminal VCE = 0 or equal to VCESAT = 0.2V.
With this condition we will have IC = VCC/ RC.

2. Cut off region – the transistor operates as an open switch. The condition is that the
input and output terminal of transistor are reverse bias. Having reverse bias
condition, therefore input current IB = 0.
3. Active region – is a region of operation wherein the transistor is used as an amplifier.
The condition applied for this region is that the input terminal of transistor should be
forward bias, and the output terminal is reverse bias.

There are Three Amplifier Configuration namely:

• Common Emitter Amplifier Configuration - the input voltage is connected to the base and
the output voltage is measured at the collector terminal. Also, since it is a common emitter
therefore the emitter terminal is grounded. Notice that positive battery voltage VBE is
connected to the base and a positive battery voltage VCE is also connected to the collector
terminal of transistor signifying that input terminal is forward bias and the output terminal
is reverse bias. This amplifier configuration has both current and voltage gain.

• Common Base Amplifier Configuration - The input terminal is connected in the emitter while
the output is at the collector terminal of the transistor. A positive voltage is connected to the
P type emitter terminal and a negative voltage to the p type collector terminal meaning forward
89
 bias at the input and reverse bias at the output terminal. The circuit has a voltage gain
but no current gain.

• Common Collector Amplifier Configuration - In this circuit the input voltage is

connected to the base terminal and output is at the emitter terminal. Take note that
a forward voltage is applied across the input and a reverse voltage at the output
terminal. The input and output signal are in phase. The circuit has current gain but
with no voltage gain.

Below is a table showing the characteristics of the three-amplifier configurations and their
differences.

Input Impedance Low Medium High

Output Impedance Very High High Low
Phase Angle 0° 180° 0°
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High

90
 Power Gain Low Very High Medium

Method of Biasing Transistor:

Biasing is a way of connecting a correct DC voltage to the terminals of transistor in order

to put it in operation. It is also a means of establishing the Q point or Operating point of a
transistor. There are four methods of biasing this device namely:

• Fixed Bias circuit

Circuit analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

KVL from VCC Base-Ground KVL from VCC Collector-Ground

𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝑐𝑅𝑐

𝐼𝑏 =
𝑅𝐵

Where: 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐵

IB = Base current
IC = Collector current
B = Current gain of a common emitter Amplifier configuration
VBE = Voltage at base-emitter terminal (constant to 0.7 V)

91
 RB = Base Resistor
RC = Collector Resistor
VCC = DC Voltage
VCE = Voltage at Collector-emitter terminal

Voltage Divider Bias: The circuit is just the same as Emitter Stabilize bias circuit only with
an additional base Resistor connected at the lower part of the input. There are now two
resistors at the input terminal namely RB1 and RB2 that serve as voltage divider resistors.

Circuit Analysis:

92
 With Exact Analysis Thevenin’s theorem is used. The circuit is transformed into what we
call Thevenin’s Model and applies the condition of voltage VCC set to zero. As a result,
parallel combination of input resistors RB1 and RB2 seen in the input refer to as RTH and
VTH equal to the voltage across the lower resistor.

Then Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied to determine circuit equation.

KVL at the input terminal:

𝑅𝐵1 𝑅𝐵2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑅𝑇𝐻 =
𝐼𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + (1 + )𝑅𝐸

KVL at the output terminal:

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸

Circuit using approximate analysis.

With approximate analysis using the original circuit

KVL lower input terminal yield to equation

𝑉𝑅𝐵2 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸 = 0

𝑅𝐵2
𝑉𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
𝑉𝑅𝐵2 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸 =
𝑅𝐸

IE  IC

Therefore, KVL at the Output 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐸 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸)

93
Feedback Bias Circuit

Circuit Analysis

KVL Input terminal

𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 ′ 𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵𝑅𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸 = 0

𝐼𝐶 ′ = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 (1 + )

Substitute yields

𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵 + (1 + )(𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸)

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸)

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 6:
1. Draw the three-amplifier configuration showing the following: Bias voltages,
connections of Bias Resistors, Input Signal Voltage, Output terminal, the direction
of the flow of current in its terminal.
2. What are the characteristics of the three-amplifier configuration: Common Emitter,
Common Base and Common Collector?

94
3. In your own words, you define transistor giving emphasis on its construction and
functions.
4. Give at least 5 applications of transistor. Show a schematic diagram of it and
discuss the circuit operation.
5. Solve at least five problems for the following transistor circuits: Fixed Bias, Emitter
stabilize bias, Voltage divider bias, Feedback bias.

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

95
 Lesson 7
Small Signal Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistor

INTRODUCTION
One function of a Bipolar Junction Transistor is to strengthen an AC signal connected to
its input terminal. And we are referring to this function of a transistor being an amplifier. A
small signal amplifier is known as a voltage amplifier. Let us say 10 mv signal connected
to the input stage of the circuit would give us an output of 500mv, meaning the signal is
increase 50 times that of the input signal. This increase was achieved by an amplifier. If
you need to drive a certain device like sensor which requires a higher voltage, and your
input signal is not enough to drive it you need an amplifier to attain the required voltage
that is to put this sensor in operation. This is now the use of an amplifier. An amplifier is
characterized by its input resistance, output resistance and the gain. To know the effect
of small signal fed to the input of an amplifier circuit what you need is to do is to transform
the circuit into what we call circuits Model.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Know the basic concept of Small Signal Analysis of transistor.
2. Define circuits characteristics such as gain, input resistance and output resistance.
3. Assemble an amplifier circuit and solve circuit characteristics.
4. Sketch the input waveform versus the output waveform.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
Small signal analysis of transistor is about an application of an AC signal to the transistor
and determines circuit characteristics such as input resistance, output resistance, voltage
gain, current gain and power gain. The approach to AC analysis is using what we call
model. And what is a model? A model is a combination of circuit elements properly
chosen that best approximate the actual behavior of a semiconductor device under its
operating conditions. There are two circuit models used nowadays. Namely: re model
and Hybrid Model.

re model was based on an ordinary diode where in the input resistance of the equivalent
model represent the dynamic resistance of the diode seen at the base terminal of
0.026 ∆𝑉𝐷
transistor, which is a PN junction, that is resistance re = 𝐼𝐷 . This is equal to ∆𝐼𝐷 , ∆𝑉𝐷 is
a change in voltage of the diode and ∆𝐼𝐷 is a change in current of the diode. At the output
terminal a current source is connected across the internal resistance ro. This ro in some
cases was treated with an infinite resistance and replaced by an open circuit. Shown
below are a common base and an equivalent circuit.
96
The equivalent re model of a common base amplifier configuration

re = dynamic resistance of diode

Ic = Ie, current source equation
ro = internal resistance output terminal
Vi = input signal
Vo = output voltage
Zi = input impedance
Zo = output impedance
A = current gain of a common base amplifier

For a common emitter

The equivalent re model of a common emitter amplifier configuration is compose of

resistor re seen in the input terminal and a current source in parallel with resistor ro at
the output terminal.

re = dynamic resistance of diode

Ic = Ib, current source equation
ro= internal resistance output terminal
 = current gain of a common emitter amplifier

97
 0.026 𝐼𝐸
Since re = , ID = IB -
𝐼𝐸 

Therefore:
0.026
Dynamic resistance rd = 𝐼𝐸/

Hybrid Model is a model used for AC analysis of bipolar junction transistor. The
characteristics of the circuit can be obtained using the four hybrid parameters and defined
by using the given equation below. Hybrid means a combination of V and I in each
equation.

Vi = hi li + hr Vo
Io = hf li + ho Vo

Using equation Vi and setting li = 0

𝑣𝑖
hr = 𝑣𝑜 reverse transfer voltage ration when li = 0

If Vo = 0
𝑣𝑖
hi = 𝑙𝑖 input impedance of the circuit when Vo = 0

Using equation lo and setting li = 0

𝐼𝑖
ho = 𝑉𝑜 Output admittance of the circuit when li = 0

If Vo = 0
𝐼𝑜
hi = 𝑙𝑖 forward transfer current ration when Vo = 0

98
Equivalent Hybrid Model

Approximate Hybrid Model Complete Hybrid Model

The Circuit model is use for the three-amplifier configuration. In the case of common
emitter subscript e is added to the parameters, for common base subscript b and for
common collector subscript c. Table below shows the different parameters.

Table for H Parameters of Amplifier Configuration

Common Emitter Common Base Common

Collector
hie hib hic
hre hrb hrc
hfe hfb hfc
hoe hob hoc

Two Port Network is an electrical network wherein the current entering one terminal is
same current leaving another terminal. Two port means two pairs of wires. This network
is characterized by Vi, Vo, li and lo. Shown below are equations used to describe the
characteristic of the circuit and a figure of a two-port network.

Important Characteristics
Zi = Vi/li Input Impedance
Zo = Vo/lo Output Impedance
Ai = li/lo Current Gain
Ai = Av (Zo/Zi) Two Port
Av = Vo/Vi Voltage Gain Network
Av = Ai (Zo/Zi)
99
Ap = Po/Pi Power Gain
Ap = Av. Ai
Avs = Vo/Vs Overall Voltage Gain
Avs = Zi (Zi + Rs)

To analyze a schematic diagram with AC signal connected the first thing that you must do
is to determine the AC equivalent circuit of the network. To determine the AC equivalent
circuit below are the steps to be followed:
1. With a given schematic diagram set all DC sources to zero replacing them with a
short circuit.
2. All Capacitors connected must be replaced by a short circuit.
3. All elements bypassed by capacitor should not be included in the circuit.
4. And draw the circuit in a more convenient and logical manner.

Note that the capacitor blocks the DC and allows the flow of AC signal.

Applying the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic diagram of
a common emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias, VCC as a DC source is set to
zero replaced by a short circuit. Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in
parallel with a short circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors
R1 and R2

are in parallel due to shorted VCC and now connected to the ground. With C1 shorted,
signal source Vs which is in series with Rs is directly connected to the base of the
transistor. Applying the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic
diagram of a common emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias, VCC as a DC source
is set to zero replaced by

a short circuit. Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in parallel with a
short circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors R1 and R2
are in parallel due to shorted VCC and now connected to the ground. With C1 shorted,
signal source Vs which is in series with Rs is directly connected to the base of the
transistor.

Applying the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic diagram of
a common emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias, VCC as a DC source is set to
zero replaced by a short circuit. Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in
parallel with a short circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors
R1 and R2 are in parallel due to shorted VCC and now connected to the ground. With C1
shorted, signal source Vs which is in series with Rs is directly connected to the base of

100
the transistor.

To determine different circuit characteristics

𝑅1𝑅2ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝑍𝑖 =
𝑅1𝑅2 + 𝑅2ℎ𝑖𝑒 + ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑅1
1
( ) 𝑅𝑐𝑅𝑙
𝑍𝑜 = ℎ𝑜𝑒
1 1
( ) 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑐𝑅𝑙 + 𝑅𝑙 ( )
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑒
𝑍𝑜
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑖
𝑍𝑖
𝑍𝑖
𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑍𝑜
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣𝐴𝑖
𝑧𝑖
𝐴𝑣𝑠 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑧𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠

An equivalent re model of a common emitter amplifier configuration with emitter stabilized

bias.

𝑅𝐵𝑅𝐸
𝑍𝑖 =
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑙
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝑐+𝑅𝑙

𝑅𝑐𝑅𝑙
𝐴𝑣 = /𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑙
𝑅𝑐𝑅𝑙 𝑅𝐵𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑖 =  /
𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑙 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐸
Ap = AvAi
𝑍𝑖
𝐴𝑣𝑠 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑍𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠
101
Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)
Activity:
Assignment No. 7:

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
102
 was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Lesson 8
Field Effect Transistor
INTRODUCTION
Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device in which its action depends on one type of
carrier. For a P channel FET, the carrier is a hole and for N channel FET the carrier is an
electron. The FET is a three-terminal device with source as a terminal where the carriers
enter the bar. The drain in which the carriers leave the bar and the gate terminal as the
controlling element. The flow of carriers from source going to the drain is controlled by a
voltage connected across the gate terminal, that’s why the FET is called a voltage-
controlled device. FET is smaller in size compared with BJT; this device is used in
integrated circuit fabrication. To mention some applications of FET, the FET can be used
as a switch, an amplifier, multiplexer, an oscillator, a current limiter, and a chopper.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the Field Effect Transistor
2. Understand the construction and operation of the device.
3. Know its circuit application.
4. Analyze and solve circuit characteristics by mathematical solution.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
Field Effect transistor is a unipolar device in the sense that their action depends on one
type of carrier. For N type channel FET, the carriers are electrons and for a P channel
FET the carriers are holes. The FET is made of three terminals namely source, drain and
gate. The source is a terminal wherein the carriers enter the channel, the drain is a
terminal where the carriers leave the channel, and the gate controls the flow of carrier
from source to drain. An application of voltage across the gate can increase or decrease
the flow of carrier. This is the reason why FET is called a voltage control device. There
are two types of FET Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) and the Metal Oxide

103
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) or sometimes called an Insulated Gate
Field Effect Transistor (IGFET).

• Junction Field Effect Transistor is classified into two types namely the N channel
JFET and P channel JFET. Shown below is the construction of the device and their
symbol.

For JFET N channel the construction is that an N Channel connects the source and the
drain terminal. A P type material is grown above and below the channel and internally
connected to represent the gate material. While for P Channel FET a P Channel connects
the source and the drain terminal and N type material represent the gate. With regards
to the symbol, the arrow depends on the type of gate material. If N channel JFET the
arrow is pointing into the device meaning gate is P type material. If it is a P channel JFET
the arrow is pointing outward of the device and represents an N type material. To put it
in operation a forward bias should be connected to source and the drain is reversed bias.
With regards to the gate, it should always be reverse bias.

Construction of N-Type and P-Type Depletion MOSFET

104
 N- channel Depletion MOSFET P-channel Depletion MOSFET

To operate a Depletion MOSFET, the source terminal should be forward bias, and the
drain is reverse bias, while the gate terminal can be supplied by a positive and negative
battery as compared to JFET only a single supply and reverse bias was applied. The
current flowing from source to drain can increase or decrease depending upon the bias
connected to the gate of DMOSFET. Below is the symbol of a device.

For circuit below, the n type source is connected to negative battery and n type drain to
the positive battery. The gate has a separate battery source. In figure it is reverse bias.
When voltage is connected this way as we increase voltage of the source-drain, the
current also increase up to a certain level that will reach saturation point, that there is no
increase in current anymore the current obtain is what we called IDSS the train source
saturation current when the voltage across the gate and source is zero. If the voltage
across the gate is now increase say - 1 V and same condition that we increase voltage of
source drain. The current will also increase up to a time it reaches again saturation level
wherein this current is lower than IDSS meaning the current is reduce because of reverse
voltage supplied across the gate of -1V. If we try to increase the level of gate voltage the
current will also decrease. The voltage measured at gate terminal when it reaches the
level of saturation with no increase in current is what we call the pinch off voltage. Drain
current ID us solve using Shockley’s formula.

𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − )
𝑉𝑃

Where:

ID = Drain Current
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage
Vp = Pinch Off Voltage

105
If the voltage across the gate is change to positive the current flowing from source to drain
will increase more than the current IDSS. If the voltage across the source-gate is
increased up to a level of pinch off voltage the current will reach the saturation point. As
we increase the positive voltage of the gate, current ID also increases. This device DMOS
can be operated with positive and negative voltage across the gate which controls the
flow of current. The graph shows the effect of these changes in voltages.

Drain-Source Characteristic Curve

Another type of FET is what we call Enhancement MOSFET or EMOSFET. The device
was constructed with no channel that will connect the source and drain material. To
operate the device a channel must be created in between the source and gate material
in order to have a resistance path between them for the flow of current. And this is made
possible by an application of reverse voltage across the gate terminal. Shown below is
the construction of an N channel EMOSFET.

Operation of N Channel Enhancement MOSFET

The source terminal is forward bias by negative voltage and drain reverse bias by positive
voltage while gate terminal is supply with negative voltage. Even though voltage applied
across the source-drain terminal is increase, there is no current flowing from the source
to drain. The reason behind this is that there is no resistance path or a channel that will
connect the two terminals. The voltage supplied across the gate is responsible for
creating the channel. With increase of voltage across the gate up to a certain level called
threshold voltage, a current will flow from source to drain terminal. Therefore, the current
is controlled by the threshold voltage of the device.
106
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾(𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2

Where:
ID = Drain Current
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage
VTH = Threshold Voltage

Method of Biasing Field Effect Transistor

• Fixed Bias circuit

Determine all circuit characteristics:

𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − ) Equation 1
𝑉𝑃

KVL at input terminal

𝑉𝐺𝐺 − 𝐼𝐺𝑅𝐺 − 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0 But IG = 0 Equation 2

Therefore:

107
Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 1
𝑉𝐺𝐺 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − )
𝑉𝑃

KVL at output terminal

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 (𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅𝑆)

• Self Bias Circuit

Determine all circuit characteristics:

𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − ) Equation 1
𝑉𝑃

KVL at input terminal

𝑉𝐺𝐺 = 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆 Equation 2

From Equation 2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = Equation 3
𝑅𝑆

Substitute Equation 3 to Equation 1

𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
= 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − )
𝑅𝑆 𝑉𝑃

By Quadratic Formula, the equation for VGS

108
 −𝑏 ±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2𝑎

Then solve ID and find.

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 (𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅𝑆)

• Voltage Divider Bias

Using voltage divider formula

𝑅2
𝑉𝑅𝐺2 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 (𝑅1+𝑅2) then

KVL Input Terminal

𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅𝐺2 − 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆 Equation 1

𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − 𝑉𝑃 )2 Equation 2

Substitute Equation 1 to Equation 2 result to

quadratic equation and can be solved by
quadratic formula.

−𝑏 ±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝐺𝑆 = Then solve ID.
2𝑎

KVL output terminal

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 (𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅𝑆)

109
 • Feedback Bias EMOSFET

Determine all circuit characteristics.

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾 (𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2 Equation 1

Where VGS = VDS

Substitute VGS to Equation 1

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾 (𝑉𝐷𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2 Equation 2

KVL output terminal

𝑉𝐷𝐷−𝑉𝐷𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = Equation 3
𝑅𝐷

Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 3

𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷𝑆
= 𝐾 (𝑉𝐷𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2
𝑅𝐷

Yields to quadratic equation and ID and VDS can be solve by quadratic formula.

−𝑏 ±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝐷𝑆 = Then solve ID by Equation 1
2𝑎

KVL output terminal

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 (𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅𝑆)

110
Combination of FET AND BJT

As an exercise solve circuit characteristics

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)
Activity:
Assignment No. 8:
1. Define in own words the Field Effect Transistor
2. Discuss the operation of VMOS and its construction.
3. Discuss the operation of UMOS and its construction.
4. Discuss the operation of TMOS and its construction.
5. Discuss the operation of LDMOS and its construction.

111
 Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Lesson 9
Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect Transistor

INTRODUCTION
A transistor that is used for small signal amplifier must be biased to its specific DC
operating point or we call it as the quiescent point. The FET operating regions are Cutoff,
Triode or Linear / Ohmic, and Saturation. For amplifier operation the FET is represented
by a small signal model which includes transconductance gm and output drain-source
resistance rds. In addition, for high frequency applications parasitic capacitances such as
Cgs, Cds, and Cdg are included in the model. Below is a picture of FET amplifier and
block diagram showing small signal amplifier.
112
A transistor that is used for small signal amplifier must be biased to its specific DC
operating point or we call it as the quiescent point. The FET operating regions are Cutoff,
Triode or Linear / Ohmic, and Saturation. For amplifier operation the FET is represented
by a small signal model which includes transconductance gm and output drain-source
resistance rds. In addition, for high frequency applications parasitic capacitances such as
Cgs, Cds, and Cdg are included in the model. Below is a picture of FET amplifier and
block diagram showing small signal amplifier.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Know the basic concept of Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect transistor.
2. Define circuits characteristics such as gain, input resistance and output resistance.
3. Assemble an amplifier circuit and solve circuit characteristics.
4. Sketch the input wave form versus the output waveform.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
Like BJT small signal analysis, the FET is also transformed into an equivalent model in
determining its circuit characteristics such as Gain, Input Resistance and Output
Resistance. The parameters involve are, transconductance gm and drain-source
resistance rds. Transconductance is defined as a change in drain current ID with respect
to change in voltage gate-source VGS. Shown below is the formula and how it was
derived.

∆𝐼𝐷 𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
𝑔𝑚 = 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 (1 − )
∆𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑃

2𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝐺𝑆 2𝐼𝐷𝑠𝑠

𝑔𝑚 = (1 − ) 𝑔𝑚𝑜 =
𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃

Where: gm = transconductance, S
VP = Pinch off Voltage, V
IDSS = Drain Source Saturation Current, A
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage, V
gmo = transconductance when VGS = 0
The figure shown below is the model use for Field Effect Transistor

113
Different FET Amplifier Configuration are:

• Common Source FET Amplifier Configuration

The input signal is connected to the gate and the output signal is taken from the drain
while the source is connected to the ground. The characteristic of the circuit is shown in
the table below:

Common Source FET using Self Bias Method

For Circuit Characteristics:

𝑅𝐷𝑟𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑔𝑚𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝑅𝐷 + 𝑟𝑑
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝐷𝑟𝑑
−𝑔𝑚𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑟𝑑 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷𝑟𝑑
𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑟𝑑

𝑟𝑖 = 𝑅𝐺
𝑅𝐷𝑟𝑑
𝑟𝑜 =
𝑅𝐷 + 𝑟𝑑

114
 𝑟𝑖
𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑟𝑜
• Common Gate FET Amplifier Configuration

The input voltage is connected to the Source, output taken from the Drain while Gate
terminal is at ground. The common gate provides low input impedance. Since the gate
is grounded this acts as a barrier between the input and output providing high levels of
isolation preventing feedback, especially at very high frequencies. The voltage gain of
the circuit is high while current gain is low. Another feature of this configuration is that the
input and output are in phase.

Analyze the input terminal by KVL

𝑉𝑖 + 𝑔𝑚𝑣𝑔𝑠 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑔𝑠 = 0
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑔𝑠 (1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑠)

At the output terminal KVL

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑔𝑠𝑅𝐷
𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖
𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑔𝑠𝑅𝐷 𝑔𝑚𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑔𝑠 (1 + 𝑔𝑚𝑅𝑠) 1 + 𝑔𝑚𝑅𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑖 =
𝑅𝑜
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑖

115
 1
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠 +
𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝐷

• Common Drain Amplifier Configuration:

With this configuration the input signal is fed to the Gate terminal and the output is from
the Source terminal. The remaining terminal which is the Drain is grounded that’s why it
is called common Drain. The common drain or source follower circuit is able to provide a
very high input impedance and low output impedance and is used to act as a buffer
amplifier.

116
Equivalent AC Circuit Common Drain Amplifier Configuration
KVL entire Loop

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑔𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 = 0 Equation 1
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠 𝑟𝑖
−𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑔𝑠 𝑟𝑑+𝑅𝑠 𝑉𝑜 = 0 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑟𝑜
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑔𝑠 𝑟𝑑+𝑅𝑠 Equation 2 𝑟𝑖 = 𝑅𝐺
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 1 yields to 𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟𝑑+𝑅𝑠
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑔𝑠 − (𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑔𝑠 𝑟𝑑+𝑅𝑠) = 0 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣𝐴𝑖
Therefore
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑔𝑠 (1 + 𝑔𝑚 )
𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅𝑠
𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑜 𝑔𝑚
𝐴𝑣 = = 𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑠
𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅𝑠

117
FET Configuration Summary Table

Link to Video Recording (to be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 9:
1. Discuss the different FET Amplifier Configuration and give their differences.
2. Define in your own words what is a small signal FET when it comes to Av, Ai, ri, ro
of the circuit.
3. For a voltage divider Common Source FET amplifier configuration with rd, RD, RL
in the output terminal and RG1 and RG2 connected to the input terminal, sketch
the equivalent AC circuit and derive the equation of Av and Ai. Show your solution.
4. Determine the overall Voltage Gain Av and Current Gain of the circuit below given
 = 100, gm = 20 s, IDSS= 10 mA and VP = - 4V.
5. Sketch the Common Drain Amplifier Configuration showing important parameters
involve.

118
 Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Reference List

TEXTBOOKS:
[1] Boylestad and Nashelsky. Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory
[2] David Bell. Solid State Pulse Circuits
[3] Horrowitz and Hill. The Art of Electronics
[4] Savent and Roden. Electronics Circuit Design
[5] Robert Grob. Basic Electronics

OTHER REFERENCES

1] Westcott, et al., Basic Electronics: Theory and Practice, 2015. (e-book)

119
Electronics Devices and Circuits Laboratory Manual

ECEN 201

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Electronics Engineering Department

120
121
122
• Computations:

• GRAPHS/Sketches:

• OBSERVATION:

• CONCLUSION:

123
124
125
• Computations:

• GRAPHS/Sketches:

• OBSERVATION:
•
• CONCLUSION:

126
127
128
129
• Computation:
• GRAPHS/Sketches:
• OBSERVATION:
• CONCLUSION:

130
131
• Computations/ Derivations:
• GRAPHS/Sketches:
• OBSERVATION:
• CONCLUSION:

132
133
134
135
136
• Computation:
• GRAPHS/Sketches:
• OBSERVATION:
• CONCLUSION:

137
138
139
140
141
• Pictures of Simulations

• Computations/ Derivations:
• GRAPHS/Sketches:
• OBSERVATION:
• CONCLUSION:

142
143
144
145
• Computations:

• GRAPHS/Sketch:

• OBSERVATION:

• CONCLUSION:

146
147
• BLOCK DIAGRAM

148
149
150
• Computations:

• Graphs/ Sketch:

• Observations:

• Conclusions:

151
152
VIDEO PRESENTATION:

OSCILLOSCOPE FAMILIARIZATION:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/12jD-Qp_QhfWSycrekWz3Y9NnVhd-Cz05

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1fQVAjiwV_7e1hfKMgmldVOC6T0GmNUyL

153
FUNCTION GENERATOR FAMILIARIZATION:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1-FsjvN6VfIjhK2vPwLi2i8GzUaD6UN3c

SEMICONDUCTOR TRAINER FAMILIARIZATION:

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1wBvLcbol5Q5q0SEQ8BW_ke1zr03YSmVh
?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR1tU6yjMubULQDMp0TsOhA3CIWasCKgllFWn1
5ned-5z5V_OL6vZ6FcPK4_aem_ZAgBSQv8G_2Tl7OP_VW5bg
TRANSISTOR BIASING TECHNIQUES:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1wBvLcbol5Q5q0SEQ8BW_ke1zr03YSmV
h?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR1tU6yjMubULQDMp0TsOhA3CIWasCK
gllFWn15ned-5z5V_OL6vZ6FcPK4_aem_ZAgBSQv8G_2Tl7OP_VW5bg

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1Z-
gHF8P1wJWmmx4vPHihTvEGFsRcuIbn

154