Exam Success Ada.

JKPSI COMPUTER 1
Content. Page No.
Computer Fundamentals. 3
Computer Architecture. 11
Input/Output Devices. 17
Computer Memory. 23
Operating System. 28
Computer Software. 33
Computer languages. 36
Microsoft Windows. 40
Microsoft Office. 48
Network/Internet. 63
Computer/ Cyber Security. 85

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 Chapter:-1
Computer Fundamentals.
A Computer is an electronic device that performs calculations and
operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware
program.

Characteristics of Computers
1. Speed – A computer can process millions of calculations per second. The
speed of computation is very high.

2. Accuracy - As computers work on inbuilt software programs, there is no

scope for human errors and highly accurate.
3. Diligence – Computers are highly reliable. They can perform complex and
long calculations with the same speed and accuracy.
4. Versatility - Computers are versatile in Nature. They can perform various
operations at the same time.

5. Storage - Computers can store a large amount of data or instructions in its

memory which can be retrieved at any point of time.

History of Computers
A Computer was intended for making a person capable of performing
numerical calculations with the help of a mechanical computing device.

Abacus
Abacus was the first counting device which was developed in China. It
consists of a rectangular wooden frame and beads. The wooden frame
contains horizontal rods and the beads which are passed through the rods.
The beads of counters represent digits. The device is used to perform simple
addition and subtraction.

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Napier’s Bones
It was a device which contained a set of rods made of bones. It was
developed by a Scottish Mathematician, John Napier. To perform
multiplication and division, the device was developed. Napier also invented
logarithms.

Pascaline
Pascaline was the first calculating device with a capability to perform
additions and subtractions on whole numbers. It was developed by Blaise
Pascal, a French Mathematician. The device made up of interlocked cog
wheels having numbers 0 to 9 on its circumference. When one wheel
completes its rotation, the other wheel moves by one segment.

Punched Card System

Punched Card System was invented by Herman Hollerith, an American
Statistician. It was used for storing and retrieving data. In the form of
punched holes, the system data could be stored.

Charles Babbage’s Calculating Engines (1792-1871)

Babbage invented the Difference Engine to solve algebraic expressions and
mathematical tasks accurately. Later, he designed some improvements to
his first computer. The modified machine is called the Analytical Engine. He
intended to design a machine with a collection of the four basic arithmetic
functions. The design principle of the Analytical Engine can be divided into
Input, Output, Memory, Central Processing Unit. The parts and working
principle of an Analytical engine are the same as today’s computer. Hence,
Charles Babbage is known as the Father of Computer.

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Hollerith Machine
A Hollerith machine was incorporated with the tabular and punched cards.
The machine could census the punched holes, recognise the number and
make the required calculation and store the data of census. The machine
was invented by Herman Hollerith.

Mark I Computer
The first electro-mechanical computing device was developed by Howard
Hathaway Aiken. He used Hollerith’s punch card and Babbage’s statements
to develop Mark I computer with IBM. In Mark III computer, he used some
electronic components and Magnetic drum memory. In Mark IV computer,
he used all electronic components and Magnetic drum memory & Magnetic
core memory.

First Un-programmable Electronic Digital Computer

(ABC)
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic computer. It
was designed by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry. It was
designed to solve systems of linear algebraic equations. It was also the first
to use capacitors for storage.

Micro Processor – INTEL 4004

In 1969, Intel Corporation designed the first general-purpose programmable
processor INTEL 4004. It was a set of four chips known as the MCS-4. It
included a central processing unit chip (the 4004) as well as a supporting
read-only memory chip for the custom applications programs, a random-
access memory (RAM) chip for processing data, and a shift-register chip for
the input/output (I/O) port.

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Important points.
• First Modern Computer in the World- ENIAC
• Father of Computer– Charles Babbage
• Inventor of Punch Cards in Computer – Hollerith
• Computer Graphics was developed by – William Fetter
• ARPANET was developed by – DARPA
• Compiler was developed by – Dr. Grace Murray Hopper
• Father of Computer Animations- John Whitney
• Keyboard was invented by- Christopher Latham Sholes
• Laptop Computer was invented by – Adam Osborne
• First GUI Computer Game was invented by- A.S. Douglas
• Computer BIOS was invented by – Gary Kildall
• Inventors of Computer Chip– Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce
• Father of Computer Hard Disk- Reynold Johnson
• Inventor of First Data Base – Dr. Edgar Frank Codd
• Inventor of Computer Scanner – Ray Kurzweil
• Inventor of Computer Speakers- Abinawan Puracchidas
• Inventor of MS-DOS Operating Systems- Microsoft
• Founder of Apple Computers – Steve Jobs
• Founder of Artificial Intelligence – John McCarthy
• Founder of Bluetooth – Ericsson
• Father of C Language – Dennis Ritchie
• Father of C++ language – Bjarne Stroustrup
• Founder of Email – Shiva Ayyadurai
• Founder of Google – Larry Page and Sergey Brin
• Founder of Internet – Vint Cerf
• Father of Java - James Gosling
• Founder of Linux – Linus Torvalds
• Founder of Microsoft – Bill Gates and Paul Allen
• Founder of Mobile Phones – Martin Cooper

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 • Founder of Mouse – Douglas Engelbart
• Founder of Php – Rasmus Lerdorf
• Founder of USB – Ajay [Link]
• Founder of WWW – Tim Berners-Lee
• Founder of Yahoo – Jurry Yang and David Filo
• First Commercial Computer – UNIVAC
• ENIAC and UNIVAC was developed by – John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert

Generation of Computers
First Generation Computers– (1946-1959)
The first-generation computers were used vacuum tubes as the electronic
components. They occupied a very large space and performed computations
in milliseconds. Machine languages are used. Examples – EDSAC, EDVAC,
UNIVAC, IBM-701, IBM-650.

Second Generation Computers – (1959-1965)

The second-generation computers replaced Vacuum Tubes with Transistors.
They used assembly languages and batch processing operating system.
Magnetic cores and magnetic tapes were used as [Link] – IBM-
1620, IBM -7094, CDC-1604, CDC-3600.

Third Generation Computers – (1965-1971)

The third-generation computers replaced transistors with integrated circuits
(ICs). They performed computation in Nanoseconds. It used high-level
languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, ALGO-68, BASIC was used. In this
generation, remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating
system were [Link] - IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP,
IBM-370/168.

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Fourth Generation Computers – (1971-1980)
The fourth-generation computers are used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits. Semi-conductor devices are used as primary memory. Magnetic
disks are used as secondary storage. Problem-oriented fourth generation
languages (4GL) are used. Multi-processing and multiprogramming operating
systems are [Link] – Apple series – I & II, IBM 4341, DEC 10, STAR
1000, PUP 11.

Fifth Generation Computers – (1980 - Present)

The fifth-generation computers use ultra large scale integrated (ULSI) chips
that contain millions of components on a single chip. They are in the
developmental stage which is based on the artificial intelligence. These
computers can also respond to natural language input. Biochips will be used
as memory devices and KIPS (Knowledge-based Information Processing
System) architecture will be [Link] – Robots, Supercomputers.

Types of Computers
Analog Computer - An Analog computer stores data continuously in the
form of physicalquantities and perform calculations with the help of
measures. It produces output in the form ofa graph. They are used in the
calculation of physical variables such as voltage, pressure,temperature,
speed, etc.

Digital Computer - A Digital computer is the most commonly used type

of computer and is working with data represented in digital form, usually
binary 0s and 1s. It can perform fasterand give more accurate results. They are
extensively used for solving complex problems in thefield of engineering &
technology, design, research and data processing.

Hybrid Computer – A Hybrid computer is a combined feature of Analog

and Digital computers. In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer

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can be used for logical operations as well as efficient processing of
differential equations.

Micro Computer – Microcomputers are small, inexpensive computer for

personal use. They are popularly used at homes for playing games and surfing
the Internet.

Mini Computer - Minicomputers possess most of the features and

capabilities of a large computer but are smaller in physical size. They are used
as small or mid-range operating business and scientific applications.

Mainframe Computer – Mainframe computers are expensive and

large size computers and they are capable of supporting hundreds of users
simultaneously. They are used for specific large-scale applications.

Super Computer - Supercomputers are powerful, expensive and the

fastest computers. They have architectural and operational principles from
parallel and grid processing for performing billions and trillions of calculations
per second. They are used for applications that require large mounts of
mathematical computations like weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, graphic
design. As of November 2024, the United States' El Capitan is the most powerful
supercomputer, reaching 1742 petaFlops (1.742 exaFlops).

The AI Supercomputer'AIRAWAT' and PARAM Siddhi – AI are currently

the fastest supercomputers in India.

General Purpose Computer - A general purpose computer can

perform an extensive variety of operations. It can store and execute different
programs in its internal storage. All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop
computers, smartphones and tablets are general-purpose devices.

Special Purpose Computer - Special purpose computers are

designed to solve specific problems. The instructions are pre-programmed
permanently in the computer. It completely controlled by automated

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manufacturing processes. Example – Aircraft control system, Electronic voting
machines etc.

Palmtop Computer – Palmtop computers are small which can fit in the
palm of a hand. The electronic pen is used to give an input. They have small
disk storage and can be connected to a wireless network.

Laptop Computer – Laptop computers are portable with less weight.

It can be transported easily and used in temporary space such as Airplane,
Meetings etc. They are designed for low power consumption and have an
attached keyboard and a touchpad.

Personal Computer (PC) - A personal computer is a cost-effective

computer that is designed for a single end-user. PC is dependent on
microprocessor technology, which allows PC makers to set the entire central
processing unit (CPU) on a single chip.

Workstation - Workstation (WS) is faster than Personal Computer. It is

designed for a user or group of users with better multitasking capability,
additional Random-Access Memory, Higher- speed graphics adapters and
drive capacity.

Client and Server – The server is a device that manages the sharing of
network resources to the users. An Application server, File server, Virtual
server, Mail server are some types of server. A client is the receiving end of the
service which made by the server. It requests the server and gains access with
the server.

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 Chapter:-2
Computer Architecture
Computer architecture deals with the functional behaviour of a computer

system as viewed by a programmer. It can also be described as the logical

structure of the system unit that housed electronic components. The
computer architecture forms the backbone for building successful computer
systems. The first computer architecture was introduced in 1970.

Components of Computer
A computer consists of following three main components
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Memory Unit

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Input Unit
The computer accepts coded information through input unit by the user. It is a
device that is used to give required information to the computer. e.g.
Keyboard, mouse, etc. An input unit performs the following functions
(i) It accepts the instructions and data from the user.

(ii) It converts these instructions and data in computer in acceptable format.

(iii) It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for
further processing.

Output Unit
This unit sends the processed results to the user. It is mainly used to display
the desired result to the user as per input instruction. e.g. Monitor, printer,
plotter, etc. The following functions are performed by an output unit
(i) It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form
and hence cannot be easily understood by user.
(ii) It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.
(iii) It supplies the converted results to the user.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It consists a set of registers, arithmetic logic unit and control unit, which
together interpret and execute instructions in assembly language. The primary
functions of the CPU are as follows

(i) The CPU transfers instructions and input data from main memory to
registers, i.e. internal memory.
(ii) The CPU executes the instructions in the stored sequence.
(iii) When necessary, CPU transfers output data from registers to main
memory.

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Central Processing Unit is often called the brain of computer. The CPU is
fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) and is also known as
microprocessor. A CPU controls all the internal and external devices and
performs arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU consists of following main
sub-systems

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical
operations on the available data. ALU uses registers to hold the data that is
being processed. Most ALUs can perform the following operations
(i) Logical operations (AND, NOT, OR, XOR).
(ii) Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).

(iii) Bit-shifting operations (shifting or rotating a word by a specified number of

bit to the left or right with or without sign extension).
(iv) Comparison operations (=, <, < =, >, > =)

Registers
These are used to quickly accept, store and transfer data and instructions that
are being used immediately by the CPU. These registers are the top of the
memory hierarchy and are the fastest way for the system to manipulate data.
The number and size of registers vary from processor to processor.

Control Unit (CU)

CU coordinates with the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the
computer to carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the
ALU and the [Link] organises the processing of data and instructions. The
basic function of control unit is to fetch the instruction stored in the main
memory, identify the operations and the devices involved in it and accordingly
generate control signals.

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Microprocessor
It is the controlling element in a computer system andis sometimes referred
to as the chip. Microprocessor is the main hardware that drives the computer.
It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), which is used in all electronic systems
such as computer, calculator, digital system, etc. The speed of CPU depends
upon the type of microprocessor used.
■ Intel 4004 was the first microprocessor made by Intel in 1971 by scientist
Ted Hoff and engineer Frederico Faggin.
■ Some of the popular microprocessors are Intel, Intel core i7, Dual core,
Pentium IV, etc.

Memory Unit
This unit is responsible to store programs or data on a temporary or
permanent basis. It has primary memory (main memory) and secondary
memory (auxiliary memory). The input data which is to be processed is
brought into main memory before processing. Another kind of memory is
referred to as secondary memory of a computer system. This unit is used to
permanently store data, programs and output. This unit does not deal directly
with CPU.

Motherboard
The main circuit board contained in any computer is called a motherboard. It
is also known as the main board or logic board or system board or planar
board. All the other electronic devices and circuits of computer system are
attached to this board like, CPU, ROM , RAM, expansion slots, PCI slots and
USB ports. It also includes controllers for devices like the hard drive, DVD
drive, keyboard and mouse. In other words, motherboard makes everything in
a computer work together.

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Components on Motherboard
Various components on motherboard are as follows
(i) CMOS Battery
(ii) (BIOS Chip
(iii) Fan
(iv) Expansion Slot
(v) SMPS
(vi) PCI Slot
(vii) Processor Chip
(viii) Buses

Interconnection of Units
CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the
computer as well as to the peripheral devices attached to it.

A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one
bit of data. In other words, bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that
allows information and signals to travel between components inside or
outside of a computer. A computer bus can be divided into two types
1. Internal Bus The internal bus connects components inside the
motherboard like CPU and system memory. It is also called the system bus.
Internal bus includes following buses
(i) The command to access the memory or the I/O devices is carried by the
control bus.
(ii) The address of I/O devices or memory is carried by the address bus. The
data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.

2. External Bus It connects the different external devices; peripherals,

expansion slots, I/O ports and drive connections to the rest of computer. It is
also referred to as the expansion bus.

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Important points.
■ UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), is an electrical apparatus that provides
emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails
■ Buffer is a temporary storage where register holds the data for further
execution.

■ Accumulator is a register in a CPU in which intermediate arithmetic and

logic results are stored.
■ An uniform interval of CPU time allocated for use in performing a task is
known as time slice.
■ The speed of processor is measured in millions of cycles per second or
megahertz (MHz) by clock speed.

■ DMA (Direct Memory Access) is a method that allows an input/output device

to send or receive data directly to or from the main memory, by passing the
CPU to speed up memory operations.

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 Chapter:-3
Input/output Devices
Input Devices
Input devices serve as a link between a user and the computer. It allows users
to feed instructions and data to computers for processing, display, storage
and/or transmission. Some input devices are:

1. Keyboard – It is used to enter data into the computer in both alpha and
numeric forms. Some important keys in a keyboard are:

(i) Toggle Keys - It is used to change the input mode of a group of keys on a
keyboard. Caps Lock, Num Lock, Scroll Lock are toggle keys.

➢ Caps Lock – Capitalizes all letters.

➢ Num Lock – Makes sure numbers are inputs from the keypad.

➢ Scroll Lock - Allows the arrow keys to scroll through the contents of a
window.

(ii) Modifier Keys - It is a special key (key combination) that temporarily

modifies the normal action of another key when pressed together. Shift, Alt,
Ctrl, Fn are modifier keys.

➢ Shift - used for capitalizing letters and entering different types of symbols.

➢ Function (Fn) - Other functions such as brightness and volume control.

➢ Control (Ctrl) - used for entering keyboard shortcuts, such as Ctrl+S, Ctrl+P
etc.

➢ Alt - used in combination with the numeric keys and the Control key for
entering keyboard shortcuts.

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(iii) Function Keys - A key on a computer keyboard, distinct from the main
alphanumeric keys, to which software can assign a function. F1 - F12 keys are
known as function keys and each key performs a different function. It may be
used as single key commands (e.g., F5) or combined with one or more
modifier keys (e.g., Alt+F4).

(iv) Escape Key – It is located in the upper left corner of a computer

keyboard. It is often used to quit, cancel, or abort a process which is running
on a computer.

2. Mouse - It is a pointing and cursor-control device. A round ball at its

base senses the movement of a mouse and sends corresponding signals to
CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. A mouse has two or three buttons
called Left, Right, and Middle button.

3. Joy Stick – It is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It

is mainly used in Computer Aided Design (CAD) and playing games on the
computer. It can also be helpful as an input device for people with movement
disabilities.

4. Track Ball – It is mostly used in notebooks or laptops. It is a ball which

is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

5. Scanner – It captures images from printed material and converts it into

a digital format that can be stored within the PC. Flatbed Scanners, Hand
Scanners, Sheetfed Scanner are some types of scanner.

6. Barcode Reader – It is an electronic device for reading printed

barcodes. A light sensor in the barcode reader can read the barcode and
translates optical impulses into electrical impulses to store the data into the
computer. It is an important tool for warehouse management and operations.

7. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) – It is a

character recognition system that uses special ink and characters. It is used
to verify the legitimacy or originality of paper documents, especially cheques.

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Information can be encoded in the magnetic characters. It provides a secure,
high-speed method of scanning and processing information

8. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) - It is a technology that

recognizes text within a digital image. It converts the document to an editable
text file.

9. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) – It is an electronic method

that scans the document and reads the data from the marked fields and
results can be transmitted into the computer.

10. Digitizer – It allows users to draw and manipulate graphics on the

screen. It is also known as a graphics tablet. These kinds of tablets typically
designed for CAD/CAM professionals.

11. Touch Screen - It is a computer display screen that serves as an

input device. A touchscreen can be touched by a finger or stylus. Touchscreen
records the event and sends it to a controller for processing.

12. Microphone – Microphone translates sound vibrations in the air into

electronic signals. It enables many types of audio recording devices for
purposes including communications, music and speech recording.

13. Web Camera – It captures and stores images in digital form. The
stored images can be can be archived on a photographic compact disc or
external hard disk.

14. Light Pen - It is a light-sensitive input device, used to select text, draw
pictures and interact with user interface elements on a computer screen or
monitor.

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 Output Devices
The Output devices are used to send data from a computer to another device.
Examples are monitors, projectors, speakers, plotters, and printers etc.

1. Monitors – Monitors are the main output device of a computer. It forms

images from tiny dots that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness
of the image depends on the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing
screens used for monitors.

(i) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) - The CRT display is made up of small picture
elements called pixels. CRT tube creates an image on the screen using a
beam of electrons.

(ii) Flat- Panel Display - The flat-panel display refers to a class of video
devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT.

(iii) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor - LCD monitors use compact
fluorescent tubes to illuminate and brighten the image on the screen and
produce good image quality, resolution and contrast levels.

(iv) Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor - LED monitors use new
backlighting technology to improve picture quality. The LED monitor is more
lifelike and accurate due to the improved contrast ratios and colour saturation
over LCD.

(v) Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) Monitor – This type of

monitor made up of some organic material (containing carbon, like wood,
plastic or polymers) that is used to convert the electric current into light. They
are directly used to produce the correct colour and there is no need for
backlight which saves power and space.

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2. Printers – Printers are output devices that prints information in the form
of text/images on a paper. Impact Printers and Non-impact printers are the
two types of printers.

(i) Impact Printers - The impact printers print the characters by striking
them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper. Examples: Dot-Matrix
Printers, Line Printers, Daisy wheel printer, Drum printer, Chain printer, Band
printer.

Dot-Matrix Printers – It prints characters as a combination of dots. They

have a matrix of pins on the print head of the printer which form the character.
They generally have 9-24 pins. Their speed is measured in cps (Character per
second).

Line Printers - A line printer is an impact printer which can print one line of
text at a time. It is also known as a bar printer.

(ii) Non-Impact Printers - Non-impact printers print the characters on

the paper without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time, so they are also called as page printers. Examples - Laser Printers, Inkjet
Printers etc.

Laser Printers - A laser printer is a popular type of personal computer

printer that uses a non-impact photocopier technology. The type of ink used
in a laser printer is dry. It gives high-quality output. The resolution of laser
printers is measured in dpi (dots-per-inch).

Inkjet Printers - Inkjet printers work by spraying ink on a sheet of paper. The
type of ink used in an inkjet printer is wet.

(iii) Other Types

Solid Ink Printer - It is a type of colour printer. It works by melting the solid
ink that applies the images to the paper. It is non-toxic and convenient to
handle.

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LED Printer - This type of printer uses a light emitting diode instead of a
laser. It starts by creating a line-by-line image of the page.

3. Plotters - A plotter is an output device used to produce hard copies of

large graphs and designs on paper, such as construction drawings,
architectural plans, and business charts. Drum plotters and Flatbed plotters
are the types of plotters.

(i) Drum plotter – It is a pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum
with a pin feed attachment. The drum then rotates the paper as pens move
across it and draw the image. It is used to produce continuous output, such as
plotting of earthquake activity. It is also known as Roller Plotter.

(ii) Flatbed plotter - It plots on paper that is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table. It is used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts,
buildings, highways etc. It is also known as Table Plotter.

4. Speaker - Speakers are one of the output devices used with computers.
They are transducers that convert electromagnetic waves into sound waves.

5. Digital Projectors – Projector is a device that connects with a

computer and projects the output onto a white screen or wall.

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 Chapter:-4
Computer Memory

Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be

processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)-Primary memory holds only those

data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data
and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided
into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Secondary Memory(Auxiliary Memory)- This type of memory is

also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU
directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main
memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores
data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off
the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible
Power System (UPS) is often used with computers.

RAM is of two types-:

1. Static RAM (SRAM)

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2. Dynamic RAM

Static RAM (SRAM) : The word static indicates that the memory retains its
contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the
power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-
transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis. There is extra
space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is
thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) : DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually

refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on
a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs
are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Cache Memory : Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor

memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs
are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, rom
where the CPU can access them.

ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The
memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are
required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

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MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices
that contained a pre-programmed set of data or Instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) : PROM is read-only

memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the
PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming.
It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) : EPROM

can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory): EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased
and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Memory Units
• Bit ( Binary Digit) 0,1
• 1 Nibble 4 Bits
• 1 Byte or Character 8 Bits
• 1 KB (Kilo Byte) 1024 Bytes
• 1 MB (Mega Byte) 1024 KB

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 • 1 GB (Giga Byte) 1024 MB
• 1 TB (Tera Byte) 1024 GB
• 1 PB (Peta Byte) 1024 TB
• 1EB (Exa Byte) 1024 PB
• 1ZB (Zetta Byte) 1024 EB
• 1YB (Yotta Byte) 1024 ZB

Virtual memory- : Virtual memory is a memory management technique

for letting processes execute outside of memory. This is very useful especially
is an executing program cannot fit in the physical memory.

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 Chapter:-5
Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between a
computer user and computer hardware. It performs all the basic tasks and
controls the peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Linux
(Ubuntu), Windows (Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1,
Windows 10), iOS, Chrome OS, DOS etc. Apple’s operating system, macOS
Mojave, version 10.14.

Functions of Operating systems

The operating system is the manager of all system resources. The functions of
operating systems are:

➢ Memory Management

➢ Process Management

➢ Device Management

➢ File Management

➢ Storage Management

➢ Security

➢ Job Accounting

➢ Controls system performance

➢ Error detecting aids

➢ Coordination between other software and users

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Memory Management - Memory management is the process of
controlling and coordinating computer memory, conveying memory blocks to
various running programs to enhance overall system performance.

Process Management – Process Management allocates the processor

(CPU) to a process and de-allocates the processor when a process is no
longer essential. It can save the tracks of the processor and the status of the
process.

Device Management – Device Management keeps track of all devices.

This is called the Input/output controller and it decides which process gets the
device, when, and for how long.

File Management – File Management allocates and de-allocates the

resources. It keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The
collective facilities are known as a file system.

Storage Management – Storage Management provides secondary storage

to backup main memory. It can store all data and program permanently. Disk
scheduling, Storage allocation, Free space management are the activities in
Storage Management.

Security – Security controls the unauthorized access of programs,

processes and data resources by means of passwords etc. It can be used to
ensure that the files, memory segment, and other resources can be operated
only by authorized users.

Job Accounting – It keeps track of time and resources used by various

users and processes.

Control System Performance – Control System records delays between

the request for a service and from the system.

Error Detecting Aids – Error detecting Aids ensure the consistent delivery
of data across the network. Production of dumps, traces, error messages and

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other debugging etc are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data
over unreliable communication channels.
Coordination between other software and users - Operating System
Coordinates and assigns compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.

Types of Operating Systems

➢ Batch Operating System

➢ Multi-Programming Operating System

➢ Timesharing/Multitasking Operating System

➢ Distributed Operating System

➢ Real-Time Operating System

➢ Single-user operating System

Batch Operating System - The users of the batch operating system do not
interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line
device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.

Disadvantages

• Lack of interaction between the user and the job

• The speed of the process is slow. Hence Output is time taking
• The CPU is in idle condition

Multiprogramming Operating System – The users of multiprogramming

operating system can execute several programs simultaneously. The CPU
keeps on processing. The processes which are running exist in main memory
at a time.

Disadvantages

• The waiting time for the job is high

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 • Complicated schedule handling

Timesharing / Multitasking Operating System - Time-sharing or

multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. It is a technique
which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a computer
system at the same time. The CPU executes multiple programs by switching
among the programs. Unix is an example of timesharing OS.
Disadvantages

• Less Reliability
• Problem of Data Communication

Distributed Operating System – Distributed Operating System allows

multiple users on different computers or terminals to access a single system
with one Operating System on it. The processors communicate with one
another through various communication lines. These are referred to as loosely
coupled systems.
Advantages

• Potential Operation
• Better service to the customers.
• The load on the host computer is reduced
• Delays in data processing are reduced

Single User Operating System – This type of operating system supports a

single user at any given time. Single keyboard and Single monitor are used for
interaction. Several programs can also run by a singleuser in this operating
system. Example – Windows 95, Windows XP etc

Real-Time Operating System – It is a data processing system in which

the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is small. It is
always online whereas online system need not be real time. They are used in
scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,

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weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, [Link] – VRTX, RT
Linux, Lynx etc
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems - In this system, the critical tasks complete on

time. Secondary storageis limited, and the data is stored in ROM. Virtual
memory is almost never found. Examples – Industrial control applications,
Robots, etc

Soft real-time systems - In this system, the time constraint is less strict.
A critical real-time task gets priority and retains the priority until it completes.
It has limited utility. Examples – Multimedia, Virtual reality, Advanced
Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Advantages

• It can be used in an embedded system

• Error-free
• Better memory allocation

Disadvantages

• Algorithm is complex

Android - Android is the name of the operating system used on many

smartphones and tablets. It is owned and maintained by Google. The recent
version of Android is Android 11.

Other Terms related to Operating System

Booting - When the computer starts, the operating system is first loaded (as
it is essential for running all other programs), this process is known as
booting.

Cold Boot – Turn ON the computer from an OFF position is called Cold
Booting.

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Warm Boot - A computer system starts up/reset from a complete powerless
state is called Warm Booting.

Firmware - Firmware is a software program that is written to a hardware

device. It allows the hardware to be updated. The contents are saved when a
hardware device is turned off or loses its external power source.

Middleware - Middleware is a software layer situated between applications

and operating systems. It enables communication and data management for
distributed applications.

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 Chapter:-6
Computer Software
The software is a group of instructions that instructing a computer to do
specific tasks. It enables the user to interact with a computer. System
Software and Application Software are two types of software.

System Software
It serves as an interface between a computer user, computer hardware and
application software. It is also known as background software. Four types of
system software are the following.

• Operating System
• Utility Programs
• Device drivers
• Language translators.

Operating System - Operating system (OS) is the program that acts as

an interface between the user and computer hardware and application
software. After the boot program, OS manages all the other programs in a
computer. Examples - Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows XP etc.

Utility Programs - Utility Programs help to manage, maintain and control

computer resources. They are also known as service programs. Examples of
utility programs are antivirus software, backup software, disk defragment,
backup, disk clean etc.

Device Drivers - A device driver is designed to enable interaction with

hardware devices. It controls a device that is attached to your computer.
Printers, Displays, CD-ROM readers, Disk drives etc are the examples of the
device driver.

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Language Translator – Language Translator translates the high-level
language program (input) into an equivalent machine language program
(output). It also detects and reports the error during translation. Assembler,
Compiler, Interpreter are types of a Language Translator.

Assembler – It converts assembly language program into machine

language.

Compiler – It converts the program in a high-level language into low-level

language and reports all the errors of the program along with the line
numbers. C, C++ use compilers.

Interpreter – It converts the programs in a high-level language to low-level

language. It translates line by line and reports the error once after completing
the translation process. It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.
Python, BASIC, and Ruby use interpreters.

Application Software
Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end
users. It enables the user to complete tasks, such as creating documents,
spreadsheets, databases, and publications, doing online research, sending
email, designing graphics etc. There are two types of application software.
1. Basic application software
2. Specialized application software

Basic application software - Basic application software is also

known as general purpose applications and productivity applications. These
programs are widely used in every discipline and occupation. Word
processors, spreadsheets, database management systems, and presentation
graphics are the common types of basic application software. Example -
Microsoft office 2016.

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Specialized application software - Specialized application
software is designed for a specific task rather for a wide application area.
Graphics programs, audio and video editors, multimedia creation programs,
web authoring, and virtual reality programs are common types of specialized
software.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 35

 Chapter:-7
Computer Languages
The different kinds of languages have been developed to perform various
types of work on the computer. The two major types of programming
languages are Low-Level Languages and High-Level Languages.

Low-Level languages
It is a programming language that deals with a computer's hardware and its
configuration. It is very close to the computer’s native language. It is further
divided into Machine and Assembly languages.

Machine Language – It consists of binary digits or bits. It can directly

understand by the computer and does not need a translator program. It is also
called the machine code. It is efficient but difficult to learn.

Advantages

• Programs run fast.

• No translation program is required.

Disadvantages

• Difficult to program
• Debugging is also an issue

Assembly Language – A combination of letters and numbers forms the

Assembly Language and a translator program is required to translate to the
machine language. The operation codes and operands are given in the form of
alphanumeric symbols which are known as mnemonic codes and can
combine in a maximum of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB
for subtraction etc. This is also known as Symbolic Programming Language.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 36

Advantages

• Easier to understand and minimizes effort.

• Finding and correcting the errors are easy.

Disadvantages

• It is machine dependent (program written for one computer might not

run in other computers with different hardware configuration)
• Writing of code is time-consuming.

High-Level languages
A high-level language (HLL) is a programming language that enables a
programmer to write programs independently. Such languages are closer to
human languages. Higher level languages are simple languages that use
English and mathematical symbols like +, -, %, / for its program construction.
Example – BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, PASCAL, PROLOG.

BASIC - Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) was

developed for students to write simple computer programs. It was designed
by John Kemeney and Thomas Kurtz in 1963.

ALGOL - ALGOL is a short form of ALGOrithmic Language. It is a family of

portable programming languages for scientific computations.

PROLOG - Prolog is used widely for artificial intelligence applications,

particularly expert systems.

PASCAL - It is used to teach programming techniques. It was developed by

Niklaus Wirth.

FORTRAN - It is a programming language designed for numeric

computation and scientific computing. FORmula TRANslation is an acronym
of FORTRAN.

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COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language is the full form of COBOL.
It is used for business and administrative purposes. It can be read like regular
English.

C – It is a general-purpose language which is used in many scientific

programming situations.

C++ - C++ is an object-oriented programming language and incorporates all

the features offered by C.
Advantages

• Independent of machines and can run on any computer

• Problem-oriented rather than machine oriented
• User-friendly

Disadvantages

• Need time for translating.

Object-Oriented Programming
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a software programming model built
around objects. This model classifies data into objects and describes object
contents and performance through the declaration of [Link] is the
first object-oriented programming language. The examples of object-oriented
programming languages are Java, Python, JavaScript, C++, C#, PHP, Perl, .NET,
Ruby Curl, Visual Basic, Smalltalk, Delphi, and Eiffel.

Java - Java is used for developing Mobile, Desktop, web, server-side and
dynamic web applications.

JavaScript – JavaScript is designed for styling HTML Pages, interactivity to

HTML Pages, Server-Side Scripting Operation, executing query related to DB
on Serve.

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Python - Python is a general-purpose programming language. It is used for
developing complex scientific, numeric applications, data analysis, and
visualization.

C# - C# is a general-purpose language was designed by Microsoft to be used

for developing apps on the Microsoft platform.

PHP - PHP stands for Hypertext Pre-processor. It is a scripting language used

for the development of web applications.

.[Link] is a programming framework developed by Microsoft, which can be

used to build different types of applications such as Windows, Web
application and Mobile based applications etc.

Visual Basic - Visual Basic is an approachable language with a simple

syntax for building type-safe, object-oriented apps.

Computer Languages Father/Inventor/Designed by

C/C++ ------Dennis Ritchie
Java James -------Gosling
JavaScript ---------Brendan Eich
PHP----------- Rasmus Lerdorf

Python -----------Guido van Rossum

HTML --------------Tim Berners-Lee
.NET (Framework) ---------Microsoft Corporation
C# -----------------Microsoft Corporation
Perl --------------------Larry Wall

Ruby---------------- Yukihiro Matsumoto

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 Chapter:-7
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows stands for ‘Microsoft- Wide Interactive Network
Development for Office Work Solution.’ Microsoft Windows is a series of
graphical interface operating system developed, marketed and sold by
Microsoft. A user can easily interact with the windows programs or
applications by selecting relevant options, through the mouse or by entering
characters through the keyboard.

Versions of MS-Windows
Some important versions of MS-Windows are as follows

Windows NT (New Technology)

A version of Windows introduced in July, 1993 and made specifically for
businesses. It offers better control over workstation capabilities to help
network administrators.
Features
(i) It is based on High Level Language.
(i) It is able to run on DOS, Windows 3 and Win 32 applications.
(iii) It has a 32-bit Windows applications.
(iv) It provides higher stability and security.

Windows 95
It is a graphical user interface based operating system. It was released on 24th
August, 1995 by Microsoft.
Features
(i) It is a mixed of 16-bit/32-bit Windows operating system.
(ii) It is consumer-oriented.

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(iii) It supports FAT32 file system, multi-display, Web TV and the Internet
Explorer.

Windows 98
It was developed in 1998. This was produced in two main versions. The first
Windows 98 version was plagued with programming errors but the Windows
98 second edition came out later was much better with many errors resolved.
Features
(i) It supports Internet Explorer 4.0.1.
(ii) Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver
Model (WDM).
(iii) It includes a FAT32 converter utility for converting FAT16 drives to FAT32
without formatting the partition.
(iv) It also supports many peripheral devices (USB, DVD etc)

Windows ME
Windows ME (Millennium Edition) launched in June 2000, but it has been
historically plagued with programming errors which may be frustrating for
home users.
Features
(i) It is designed for single CPU.
(ii) It supports 8 or more CPU (the maximum 32 CPU).
(iii) The minimum internal storage is 64MB and maximum 4GB.
(iv) It introduced Multilingual User Interface (MUI).

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Windows XP
It is an OS produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers. Microsoft
released Windows XP on 25th October, 2001. Some versions of Windows XP
are as follows
(i) Windows XP Home edition is a version made for home users.

(ii) Windows XP Professional is made for business users.

Features
(i) It has various users with independent profiles.
(ii) It has 3.75 GB free space on the disk and that the total size of the disk is
19.5 GB.
(iii) Atleast 64 MB of RAM internal storage.

(iv) It provides 1.5 GB of available space on the hard disk.

(v) It includes video adapter and monitor with Super VGA (Video Graphics
Array) or higher resolution.
(vi) It supports sound card, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM drive, speakers or
headphones.

Windows Vista
It is an operating system developed by Microsoft for use on personal
computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and
media center PCs. It was released worldwide on 30th January, 2007.
Features
(i) It can be installed Pentium 4, higher, 512MB RAM, 32 MB video card and 40
GB hard disk.
(ii) It enhances the features of visual style.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 42

Windows 7
It is an OS released by Microsoft on 22nd October, 2009. It is an upgrade of
Windows XP and Vista. It does not include some standard applications like
Windows Movie Maker, Windows Mail, etc.
Features

(i) It supports 64-bit processor.

(ii) It provides touch, speech, handwriting recognition.
(iii) It supports a playback of media in MP4.
(iv) It includes Windows Bio-metric framework.
(v) It provides multiple firewall.

Windows 8
It is a personal computer operating system that was developed by Microsoft
and released on 26th October, 2012.

Features
(i) It is a 64-bit logical CPU.
(ii) It provides 3D Graphic supports and Internet Explorer-10.
(iii) It is based on Microsoft’s Metro design language.
(iv) It supports new emerging technology like USB 3.0, cloud computing.

Windows 10
It is a personal computer operating system developed and released by
Microsoft on 29th July, 2015.
Features
(i) It is easy to used social media sites like Facebook, Twitter.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 43

(ii) Windows 10 will also include a ‘game DVR’ mode to allow recordings of the
last 30 seconds of play, all better for the social gaming.
(iii) Windows 10 interface to adapt based on the hardware it is running on.

Main Programs Inside the Windows

Notepad
It is a text editor program. Notepad is most commonly used to the edit or view
text files. The file format of Notepad files is .txt (text document). To open Click
on Start button ® All Programs
® Accessories ® Notepad

WordPad
It is an another text editor program including some few features such as
complex formatting, pictures, etc. The extension of WordPad file is .rtf (rich
text format).To open Click on Start button ® All Programs
® Accessories ® WordPad

Paint
It is a drawing program, used to create drawing or edit digital pictures
(images). The extension of paint file is .png or. jpg or. bmp.
To open Click on Start button ® All Programs
® Accessories ® Paint

Important points.
■ Standby drops the computer into a very low power mode.
■ Hibernate is a feature of computer operating system where the contents of
RAM are written to non-volatile storage such as hard disk before power OFF
the computer.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 44

■ Clipboard is a temporary storage in computer memory that stores the cutted
or copied data.

Files
These are the collection of data stored on auxiliary storage media. In
Windows, files are the basic unit to store data. The name given to a file or
document by the user is called file name. Each file has a specific filename
and has a file extension that identifies the file type.
Some common filename extensions are as follows
.docx MS-Word document
.rtf WordPad document
.txt Notepad text file

.eml E-mail file

.exe Executable file
.xlsx MS-Excel file
.htm
.html HTML file (Web page)

.pptx MS-PowerPoint presentation

ZIP File ZIP stands for Zone Information Protocol. This is an application that
allows for the compression of application files.

Executable File When a file contains instructions that can be carried out
by the computer, it is often called an executable file.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 45

Windows Libraries
A library can contain files and folders stored on the local computer. Users
interact with libraries in ways similar to how they would interact with other
folders.
Different types of library are as follows
(i) Documents Library It is used to organise and arrange Word processing
documents, Spreadsheets, Presentation and other text related files.

(ii) Pictures Library It is used to organise and arrange your digital pictures.
(iii)Music Library It is used to organise and arrange your digital music, such as
songs, etc.
(iv)Videos Library It is used to organise and arrange your videos, such as clips,
recording, etc.

MS-Windows Shortcut Keys

• Delete------ Delete characters to the right of cursor
• Backspace------- Delete characters to the left of the cursor
• Ctrl + A Select all
• F3 ----Search for a file or folder
• Alt + Enter View properties for the selected item
• Alt + F4 Close the active item, or quit the active program
• Alt + Spacebar Opens the shortcut menu for the active window
• F2 Rename selected item
• Ctrl + Right Arrow Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next
word
• Ctrl + Left Arrow Move the insertion point to the beginning of the
previous word
• Ctrl + Alt + Del Restart the computer
• Ctrl + Esc Display the Start menu
• F5 Refresh the active window

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 46

 • Esc Cancel the current task
• Window To display or hide the Start menu
• Window + D To display the desktop
• Window + L To Lock the keyboard

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 47

 Chapter:-8
Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office was developed by Microsoft Inc in 1988. It is a collection of
software’s, based on specific purpose and mainly used in office work. You can
start any software of MS-Office by using the Start button.
There are five packages of MS-Office

1. MS-Word (Word Processing Software)

2. MS-Excel (Spreadsheet Software)
3. MS-PowerPoint (Presentation Software)
4. MS-Access (Database Management Software)
5. MS-Outlook (E-mail Client)

Microsoft Word
MS-Word is a Word processing application which is one of the most important
and widely used applications found on computer. It provides tools for editing,
formatting and printing of documents smaller than 45 Kb. The document can
be a poster, report, letter, brochure, Web page, newsletter, etc. e.g. WordStar,
Notepad for Windows.
Start MS-Word

There are two methods of starting MS-Word which are as follows

(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option. Run dialog box will be
appear on screen. Now, type WinWord on text box and press Enter key.
(ii) Click Start button ®All Programs ®Microsoft Office
® Microsoft Office Word 2007.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 48

It opens MS-Word with a blank document. By default, the name of the blank
document is [Link],[Link] are the extensions of a MS-Word
file. Components of Microsoft Word

The components of MS-Word are as follows

(i) Title Bar It shows the name of the application and name of the file. It
consists of three control buttons, i.e.
(a) Minimize (reduces the window but Word still active)

(b) Restore (brings Word window to the maximum original size)

(c) Close (Close the word window)

(ii) Standard Tool Bar It displays the symbol for the common operation like
Open, Print, Save, etc.

(iii) Ribbon It is a set of tools and commands across the top of the screen.
It consists of a panel of commands which are organised into a set of tabs.

(iv) Tab On the ribbon, it contains the buttons needed to edit

characters, text and layout.

(a) Home tab Consists of Clipboard (Cut, Copy, Paste), Font (Size, Color, Bold,
Italic, Underline), Paragraph (Bullets/ Numbering, Indent), Styles, Editing (Find
and Replace).
(b) Insert tab Consists of Pages (Cover Page, Blank Page, Page Break), Tables
(Table), Illustrations (Picture, ClipArt, Shapes, SmartArt, Chart), Links
(Hyperlink, Book mark, cross-referenec), Header & Footer, Text (TextBox, Date
& Time, Object), Symbols (Equation, Symbol).
(c) Page Layout tab Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Page Background,
Paragraph, Arrange.
(d) References tab Consists of Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations &
Bibliography, Captions, Index, Table of Authorities.

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(e) Mailings tab Consists of Create, Start Mail Mrge, Write and Insert Fields,
Preview Results and Finish.
(f) Review tab Consists of Proofing (Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus,
Translate), Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare, Protect.
(g) View tab Consists of Document Views (Print Layout, Full Screen Reading),
Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros, etc.

(v) Ruler It appears on the top of the document window. It allows to format
the horizontal or vertical alignment of text in a document.
There are two types of rulers
(a) Horizontal ruler It indicates the width of the document and is used to set
left and right margins.
(b) Vertical ruler It indicates the height of the document and is used to set top
and bottom margins.

(vi) Status Bar It displays the information such as page number, current
page, current template, column number and line number, etc.

(vii) Work Area It is the rectangular area of the document window that can
be use to type the text. It is also called as workplace.

(ix) Cursor It is also called insertion pointer. It denotes the place where
text, graphics or any other item would be placed when you type,
overwrite or insert them.
• MS-Word was first released in 1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for
Xenix Systems.
• In MS-Word, a default alignment for the paragraph is left.

Exam Success Ada. JKPSI COMPUTER 50

Shortcut Keys of MS-Word and their Descriptions
• New Ctrl + N Creates a new document.
• Open Ctrl + O or Ctrl + F12 Opens an existing document.
• Save Ctrl + S or Shift + F12 Saves the active document.
• F12 Opens a save as dialog box.
• Select Ctrl + A Selects all contents of the page.
• Print Ctrl + P or Ctrl + Shift + F12 Prints the active document.
• Print Preview Ctrl + F2 Displays full pages as they are printed.
• Spelling F7 Checks the spelling in the active document.
• Cut Ctrl + X Cuts the selected text and puts it on the clipboard.
• Copy Ctrl + C Copies the selected text and puts it on the clipboard.
• Paste Ctrl + V or Shift + Insert Inserts the clipboard contents at the
insertion point.
• Format Painter Ctrl + Shift + C Copies the formatting of the selected text
to a specified location.
• Undo Ctrl + Z Reverses certain commands.
• Redo Ctrl +Y Reverses the action of the Undo button.
• Help F1 Provides the help for working on MS -Word.
• Find Ctrl + F Opens Find and replace dialog box with find tab
• Insert Ctrl + K Inserts link.
• Delete Ctrl + Del Deletes word to the right of cursor.
• Ctrl + Backspace Deletes word to the left of cursor.
• Insert Alt + Shift + D Insert the current date.
• Alt + Shift + T Insert the current time.
• Style Ctrl + Shift + S Applies a style or records a style.
• Font Ctrl + Shift + F Changes the font of the selected text.
• Font Size Ctrl + Shift + P Changes the font size of the selected text.
• Bold Ctrl + B Makes the selected text bold.
• Italic Ctrl + I Makes the selected text italic.
• Underline Ctrl + U Makes the selected text underline.

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 • Aligned Left Ctrl + L Aligns the paragraph at left indent. (By default)
• Center Ctrl + E Centers the paragraph between the indents.
• Aligned Right Ctrl + R Aligns the paragraph at right indent.
• Justify Ctrl + J Aligns the paragraph at both right and left indents.
• Line space Ctrl + 5 To increase line spacing

Microsoft Excel
An electronic spreadsheet is used for analysing, sharing and managing
information for accounting purpose performing mathematical calculations,
budgeting, billing etc. A spreadsheet is a matrix of rows and columns similar
to an accounting ledger. The spreadsheet program also provides tools for
creating graphs, inserting pictures and chart, analysing the data etc. e.g. Corel
Quattro Pro, Snowball, Lotus-1-2-3, Apple Numbers etc.
Start MS-Excel
To start MS-Excel software, we can follow any one method out of them
(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option. Run dialog box will be
appear on screen. Now, type excel on text box and press Enter key.
(ii) Click Start button ® All Programs ® Microsoft Office ® Microsoft Office Excel
2007

• By default, the name of the blank spreadsheet is [Link], where .xls

and .xlsx are the extensions of a MS-Excel spreadsheet.

Tab On the ribbon, it contains the buttons needed to edit characters, text
and layout.

(i) Home tab Consists of Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells
and Editing.
(ii) Insert tab Consists of Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links and Text.
(iii) Page Layout tab Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet
Options and Arrange.

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(iv) Formulas tab Consists of Function Library, Defined Names, Formula
Auditing and Calculation.
(v) Data tab Consists of Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data
Tools and Outline.
(vi) Review tab Consists of Proofing, Comments and Changes.
(vii) View tab Consists of Workbook Views, Show/Hide. Zoom, Window and
Macros.

Status Bar It displays information about the currently active worksheet. It

includes page number, view shortcuts, zoom slider, etc.

Formula Bar It is located below the ribbon. It is used to enter and edit
worksheet data. It includes

(i) Name box displays the all references or column and row location of the
active cell.
(ii) Functions are predefined formulas that perform calculations by using
specific values, called arguments.

Functions
Predefined formulas in MS-Excel are called functions.
Function Description Example

• SUM It is used to add all the values provided as argument.

= SUM(A1 : A5)

• AVERAGE This function calculates the average of all the values provided
as argument.
=AVERAGE(A1 : A5)

• COUNT This function counts the number of cells that contain number.
= COUNT(A1 : A5)

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 • MAX This function is used to return maximum value from a list of
arguments.
= MAX(A1 : A5)

• MIN This function is used to return minimum value from a list of

arguments.
= MIN(A1 : A5 )

Where, A1 : A5 is a range between the cells of A1and A5.

The basic terms of spreadsheet are as follows

1. A spreadsheet is a software tool that lets one enter, calculate, manipulate
and analyse set of numbers.
2. The intersection of each row and column is called cell. A cell is an
individual container for data. It may hold
(i) Numbers (Constants)
(ii) Formulas (Mathematical equations)

(iii) Text (Labels)

3. An array of cells is called a sheet or worksheet. A worksheet holds
information presented in tabular format with text.
4. A workbook is a document that contains one or more worksheet. Each new
workbook has created three worksheets by default.

5. A row is given a number that identifies, it starts from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … so on.

6. A column is given a letter that identifies it starts from A … Z, AA … AZ, BA,
BB … BZ so on.
7. Active cell is a cell in which you are currently working.
8. A cell pointer is a cell-boundary that specifies which cell is active at that
moment.

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9. A formula is an equation that calculates the value to be displayed. A
formula must begin with equal to ( ) = sign.
10. A cell address is used to specified the intersecting of row and column of
the letter and number on worksheet.

Charts
These are the graphical and pictorial representation of worksheet data.
1. Area Chart It emphasises the magnitude of change over time.
2. Column Chart It shows data changes over a period of time or illustrates
comparisons among items.
3. Bar Chart It illustrates comparisons among individual items. Categories are
organised vertically and values horizontally.

4. Line Chart It shows trends in data at equal intervals. It is useful for depicting
the change in a value over period of time.
5. Pie Chart It shows the proportional size of items that make up only one data
series to the sum of the items.
6. XY (Scatter) Chart It shows the relationships among the numeric values in
several data series or plots two groups of numbers as series of XY
coordinates. Scatter compares pairs of values.

Components of a Chart
Components of a chart are as follows

1. Chart Area This is the total region surrounding the chart.

2. Plot Area The area where data is plotted. The plot area is bounded by axes in
a 2D-Chart whereas in 3D-Chart it is bounded by walls and floor.
3. Chart Title The descriptive text aimed at helping user identify the chart.
4. Axis Title These are the titles given to three axis, i.e. X, Y and Z.

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5. Data Series A row or column of numbers that are plotted in a chart is called
a data series.
6. Gridlines These are horizontal and vertical lines which inserted in the chart
to enhance its readability.
7. Legends It helps to identify various plotted data series.
8. Data Label It provides additional information about a data marker.
9. Data Table It is defined as a range of cells that are used for testing and
analysing outcomes on a large scale.
■ $ sign locks the cells location to a fixed position.

■ Stacked Bar Column shows the relationship of individual items to the whole.
■ Chart wizard is used to create charts in MS-Excel.
■ Embedded chart is a chart that is drawn on an existing sheet.

Shortcut Keys of MS-Excel

• F2 Edit the selected cell.
• F5 Go to a specific cell. e.g. C6
• F7 Checks the spellings
• F11 Create chart.
• Ctrl + Shift + ; Enter the current time.
• Ctrl + ; Enter the current date.
• Alt + Shift + F1 Insert new worksheet.
• Shift + F3 Opens the Insert Function window.
• Shift + F5 Opens Find and Replace dialog box with find tab.
• Ctrl + A Select all contents of the worksheet.
• Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + K Insert link.
• Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.

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 • Ctrl + P Bring up the Print dialog box to begin printing.
• Ctrl + Z Undo the last action.
• Ctrl + F9 Minimize current workbook.
• Ctrl + F10 Maximize currently selected workbook.
• Ctrl + F6 Switch between open workbooks/windows.
• Ctrl + Page Up Move to the previous sheet between Excel worksheets in
the same Excel document.
• Ctrl+ Page Down Move to the next sheet between Excel worksheets in
the same Excel document.
• Ctrl + Tab Move between two or more open Excel files.
• Alt + = Create a formula to sum all of the above cells.
• Shift + Home Go to the first cell in the current row.
• Ctrl + Shift + ! Format number in comma format.
• Ctrl + Shift + $ Format number in currency format.
• Ctrl + Shift + # Format number in date format.
• Ctrl + Shift + % Format number in percentage format.
• Ctrl + Shift +@ Format number in time format.
• Ctrl + Space Select entire column.
• Shift + Space Select entire row.

Microsoft PowerPoint
The application software that can create professional looking visual aids is
called presentation graphics software. The presentation software is used for
creation of the slides and to display the information in the form of
presentation of slides. A presentation software provides tools like editor that
allows insertion and formatting of text and methods for inserting and
manipulating graphics images along with sound and visual effects.
Start MS-PowerPoint
To start the MS-PowerPoint software, we need to
Click Start button ® All Programs ® Microsoft

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Office ® Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007
By default, the name of the blank document is Presentation1. ppt, where .ppt
or .pptx is the extension of a PowerPoint file.

Components of PowerPoint
Various components of MS-PowerPoint 2007 window are described below
1. Title Bar It contains the name of currently opened file followed by software
name.
2. Ribbon It is same as Word and Excel, just few tabs are different like
Animations, Slide Show, etc.

3. Slide It appears in the centre of the window. You can create your
presentation by adding content to the slides.
4. Slide Pane This area of PowerPoint window displays all the slides that are
added in the presentation.
5. Slide View Tab This tab displays a thumbnail view of all the slides.

6. Outline View Tab This tab displays the text contained in the presentation in
an outline format.
7. Notes Section This can be used for creating notes.
8. Status Bar It displays the number of the slide that is currently being
displayed.
PowerPoint Views

Different types of views available in PowerPoint 2007 are explained below

1. Normal View This is the main editing view, where you write and design your
presentations, i.e. actual screen which is displayed.
2. Slide Sorter View It provides a view of slides in thumbnail form. This view
makes it easy to sort and organise the sequence of the slides at the time of
creating presentation.

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3. Notes Page View In this view, the notes pane is located just below the slide
pane. Here, notes that apply to the current slide can be typed. Later, these
notes can be printed and referred while giving actual presentation.

4. Slide Show View This is used to deliver a presentation to the audience. Slide
Show view takes up the full computer screen, like an actual presentation. To
exit Slide Show view, press Esc key from the keyboard.
5. Master View This view includes Slide view, Handout view and Notes view.
They are the main slides that store information about the presentation,
including background color, fonts effects, placeholder sizes and positions.

■ Trigger is defined as an object or item that performs on the slide when we

click the mouse.
■ The MS-PowerPoint can maximum zoom to 400% only.
■ In MS-PowerPoint, we can add many types of image and sound format such
as .gif, .bmp, .png, .jpg, .giv, .wav, .mid, etc.

Shortcut Keys of Microsoft PowerPoint

• F5 View the Slide Show.
• Shift + Ctrl + Home Selects all text from the cursor to the start of the
active text box.
• Shift + Ctrl + End Selects all text from the cursor to the end of the active
text box.
• S Stop the slide show press S again to restart the slide show.
• Esc End the slide show.
• Ctrl + A Select all items on the page or the active text box.
• Ctrl + B Applies bold to the selected text.
• Ctrl + F Opens the find and replace dialog box with find tab.
• Shift + click each slide Select more than one slides
• Ctrl + H Opens the find and replace dialog box with replace tab.
• Ctrl + I Applies italic to the selected text.
• Ctrl + M Inserts a new slide.

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 • Ctrl + N Opens a new blank presentation.

MS-Access
Elements of MS-Access
In MS-Access, database holds various elements for every database operation

1. Field Name It is a label provided for a field that specifies the type of
information contained in a particular field.
2. Field Type/Data Type It specifies the type of data stored in the field such as
textual data and numerical data or combination of both. The default size of
data type is 50 in MS-Access.

There are various data types as follows

• Text 0-255 characters
• Memo 0-65535 characters
• Number 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes
• Date/Time 8 bytes
• Currency 8 bytes
• Auto Number 4 bytes
• Yes/No 1 bit (0 or 1)
• OLE object upto 1 GB
• Hyperlink Each part contains 2048 characters

[Link] Length Field refers length or width to the maximum number of

characters that a field can contain.

4. Primary Key A field which is used to uniquely identify the records in a table.
The primary key cannot contain null value.

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5. Validation Rule It is a condition that must be met before data is accepted
into database.
6. MS-Access View You can create a table by two most popular ways

(i) Datasheet View It shows the data in the database and also allows you to
enter and edit the data but not allow to change the database.
(ii) Design View It allows you to create or change the table and also set the
keys.
7. Filtering Data It enables to display only those records in a table that meet a
specified filter criterion.

8. Relationship It is an association between access tables or queries that use

related fields. It is a link between tables and enables us to accessed data from
both tables simultaneously. Relationship can be divided into three catogories
as One-to-One, One-to-Many and Many-to-Many
9. Attributes These can be defined as the characteristics of an entity to
identify it uniquely. Such as student’s attributes are Roll-No, Section, Name,
etc.
■ Memo allows long blocks of text that use text formatting.
■ Each character requires one byte for its storage.
■ Validation Text appears if a validation rule is not satisfied.
■ The Required field property makes data entry compulsory so that the field
cannot be left blank.

Shortcut Keys of MS-Access

• Ctrl + N Create a new database.
• Ctrl + O Open an existing database.
• Alt + N Create a new database object.
• Alt + O Open database object.
• Ctrl + S Save a database object.

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 • Ctrl + P Print the current or selected database object.
• Ctrl + C Copy the selected object.
• Ctrl + X Cut the selected object.
• Ctrl + V Paste the cutted or copied object.
• Delete Delete an object.
• Ctrl + Plus sign( ) + Add a new record.
• Ctrl + Semicolon(;) Insert the current date.
• Ctrl + Shift+Colon(:) Insert the current time.
• Ctrl + Alt + Spacebar Insert the default value for a field.
• Ctrl + Apostrophe(') Insert the value from the same field in the previous
record.
• Ctrl + A Select all records.
• Ctrl + Minus sign (–) Delete the current record.
• Esc Undo changes made to thecurrent field/record.
• Alt + D Open a database object in design view.
• Alt + Enter Display a property sheet in design view.
• Alt + V + P Open property sheet for the selected object in design view.
• Ctrl + B Bold letters
• Ctrl + I Italicise letters
• Ctrl + U Underline letters
• Ctrl + F Find text
• Ctrl + H Replace text
• F5 Refresh
• F2 Rename
• Ctrl + A Select All
• Ctrl + Y Redo Last Action
• Ctrl + Z Undo Last Action
• Ctrl + W Close the active window
• F1 Open Microsoft Access help
• Ctrl + Shift + A Sort selected data in ascending order
• Ctrl + Shift + Z Sort selected data in descending order

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 Chapter:-9
Computer Network
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected
to each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Network:
A network is a group of systems that are connected to allow sharing of
resources—such as files or printers—or sharing of services-such as an
Internet connection .There are two aspects of setting up a network: the
hardware used to connect the systems together and the software installed on
the computers to allow them to communicate.

Basic Communication Model :

Communication model is used to exchange data between two parties. For
example communication between a computer, server and telephone (through
modem).
Source- Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example:
telephones, personal computers etc.
Transmitter- The data generated by the source system are not directly
transmitted in the form they are generated. The transmitter transforms and
encodes the information in such a form to produce electromagnetic waves or
signals.

Transmission System- A transmission system can be a single transmission

line or a complex network connecting source and destination.
Receiver- Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and
converts it to a form which is easily managed by the destination device.
Destination-Destination receives the incoming data from the receiver.

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Network Topology:
Topology is the geometric arrangement of a computer system. Each computer
system in a topology is known as a node. Network topology is determined only
by the configuration of connections between nodes.
Bus Topology: A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all
nodes are connected and the nodes connect only to this bus.
Mesh Topology: This type of network topology contains at least two nodes
with two or more paths between them.
Ring Topology: In this network topology, every node has exactly two branches
connected to it. The ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the
ring fails.

Star Topology: In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected
to a central node, which rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any
peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, including the
originating node.
Tree Topology: This is a network topology in which nodes' are arranged as a
tree. The function of the central node in this topology may be distributed.

Network Terms
Server:- The server is a special computer that contains more disk space and
memory than are found on client workstations. The server has special
software installed that allows it to function as a server. This special software
can provide file and print services (to allow sharing of files and printers),
provide web pages to clients, or provide e-mail functionality to the company.
Workstations -The workstation also is known as a client, which is just a basic
computer running a client operating system such as Windows XP or Linux.
These users typically store their files on a central server so that they can share
the files with other users on the network.

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Hosts-The term host refers to any computer or device that is connected to a
network and sends or receives information on that network. A host can be a
server, a workstation, a printer with its own network card, or a device such as
a router. We can summarize by saying that any system or device that is
connected to the network is known as a host.

Types of Networks-Organizations of different sizes, structures, and

budgets need different types of networks. Networks can be divided into one of
two categories: peer-to-peer or server-based networks.
1. Peer-to-Peer Network

2. Server-Based Networks

Peer-to-Peer Network
A peer-to-peer network has no dedicated servers instead; a number of
workstations are connected together for the purpose of sharing information
or devices. When there is no dedicated server, all workstations are considered
equal; any one of them can participate as the client or the server. Peer-to-peer
networks are designed to satisfy the networking needs of home networks or of
small companies that do not want to spend a lot of money on a dedicated
server but still want to have the Capability to share information or devices. For
example, A small peer-to-peer network will allow these three computers to
share the printer and the customer information with one another .The extra
cost of a server was not incurred because the existing client systems were
networked together to create the peer-to-peer network. A big disadvantage of
peer-to-peer networking is that you can‘t do your day-today administration in
a single place.

Server-Based Networks
Usually after four or five systems have been networked, the need for a
dedicated server to store all of the user accounts and data files becomes
apparent—this is a server-based network. The advantage of a server-based

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network is that the data files that will be used by all of the users are stored on
the one server. This will help you by giving you a central point to set up
permissions on the data files, and it will give you a central point from which to
back up all of the data in case data loss should occur. With a server-based
network, the network server stores a list of users who may use network
resources and usually holds the resources as well. The server in a server-
based network may provide a number of different services. The services it will
offer to the network usually are decided by the server‘s role.
There are a number of different roles that a server could play on a network:

1. File and print Servers [Link] servers [Link] servers [Link]

servers

1. File and print servers-

File and print servers control and share printers and files among clients on the
network. File and print servers were the original reason to have a network; a
large number of users needed access to the same files, so the files were
placed on a server, and all clients were connected to the server when they
needed to work with the files.

2. Application servers-
Application servers are servers that run some form of special program on the
server. A good example of an application server is a server that runs the
company‘s e-mail server. The e-mail server software is special software that
can be run on a server operating system. Another example of software that
would run on an application server is a database server product such as

Microsoft SQL Server. A database server is a server that holds the

company‘s core business data and typically gives this data to custom
applications that run on the workstations. These are some applications that
you might find on an application server:
1. Microsoft SQL Server, [Link] [Link] Exchange Server [Link] Lotus
Domino

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3. Web servers-
Web servers are servers that run the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and
are designed to publish information on the Internet or the corporate intranet.
Web servers are popular in today‘s businesses because they host web
applications (web sites) for the organization. These web applications could be
designed for internal use, or they could be used to publish information to the
rest of the world on the Internet. Examples of web server software are
Microsoft‘s Internet Information Services that runs on Windows or Apache
web server software that runs on UNIX/Linux, Novell NetWare, and Windows.

4. Directory servers-
Directory servers hold a list of the user accounts that are allowed to log on to
the network. This list of user accounts is stored in a database (known as the
directory database) and can store information about these user accounts
such as address, city, phone number, and fax number. A directory service is
designed to be a central database that can be used to store everything about
such objects as users and printers.

Network Media and Connectors-:

Cabling is the medium for the transmission of data between hosts on the
LANs. LANs can be connected together using a variety of cable types, such as
unshielded twisted-pair, coax, or fiber. Each cable type has its own
advantages and disadvantages, which you will examine in this section. There
are three primary types of cable media that can be used to connect systems
to a network—coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Transmission rates that can be supported on each of these physical media are
measured in millions of bits per second, or megabits per second (Mbps).

Coaxial Cable-:
Coaxial, or coax, cable looks like the cable used to bring the cable TV signal

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to your television. One strand (a solid-core copper wire) runs down the middle
of the cable. There are two types of coax cabling: thinnet and thicknet. The
two differ in thickness and maximum cable distance that the signal can travel.

Twisted-Pair Cable-:
Coaxial cable is not as popular today as it was a few years ago; today the
popularity contest has been dominated by twisted-pair cabling. Twisted-pair
cabling gets its name by having four pairs of wires that are twisted to help
reduce crosstalk or interference from outside electrical devices. (Crosstalk is
interference from adjacent wires.) there are two forms of twisted-pair
cabling—unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP).

Fiber-Optic Cable-:
The third type of cabling that we want to discuss is fiber-optic cabling. Fiber-
optic cabling is unlike coax and twisted-pair, because both of those types
have a copper wire that carries the electrical signal. Fiber-optic cables use
optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of
light. An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the
core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. There
are two fibers per cable-one to transmit and one to receive. The core also can
be an optical-quality clear plastic, and the cladding can be made up of gel
that reflects signals back into the fiber to reduce signal loss. There are two
types of fiber-optic cables: single-mode fiber (SMF) and multimode fiber
(MMF).

1. Single-mode fiber Uses a single ray of light, known as a mode, to carry the
transmission over long distances.
2. Multimode fiber Uses multiple rays of light (modes) simultaneously, with
each ray of light running at a different reflection angle to carry the
transmission over short distances.

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 Network Devices
Network devices are components used to connect computers or other
electronic devices together so that they can share files or resources like
printers or fax machines. Devices used to setup a Local Area Network (LAN)
are the most common types of network devices used by the public. A LAN
requires a hub, router, cabling or radio technology, network cards, and if
online access is desired, a high-speed modem. This is much less complicated
than it might sound to someone new to networking.

Hub- Broadcasts data from one port to all other ports in the network.
Repeater- Regenerates the input data which is subjected to attenuation.
Switch- Intelligent device which sends data to particular port.

Bridge-Same function as switch but much more primitive and has lesser
ports.
Router-Connects all computers from a LAN to internet using same IP.
IEEE 802.11- Wi-Fi standard- 802.11 b has speed of 11 Mbps, 802.11 g has a
speed of 54 Mbps and 802.11 N uses multiple wireless signals and antennas
and has speeds of over 100Mbps.

Gateway-Needed when 2 different network technologies are being used.

Acts as translator.
Connecting Cables- RJ-11(Telephone Cable), RJ 45 (LAN Cable), Twisted pair
cables (used in connecting 2 computers), Null Modem Cable (RS232) , Optical
Fiber Cable(Gigabit Ethernet).

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ARPANET- Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, ARPANET or
Arpanet began development in 1966 by the United States ARPA. ARPANET
was a Wide Area Network linking many Universities and research centers, was
first to use packet switching, and was the beginning of what we consider the
Internet today. Some of the reasons for creating ARPANET include making it
easier for people to access computers, to improve computer equipment, and
to have a more effective communication method for the military.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how messages
should be transmitted between any two points in a telecommunication
network. A reference model is a framework for understanding relationships.
The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so
that the digital communication products and software programs they create
will interoperate. The OSI reference model defines seven layers of functions
that take place at each end of a communication.
Layer 7: The application layer - This is the layer at which communication
partners are identified, quality of service (QoS) is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax
are identified. (This layer is not the application itself, although some
applications may perform application layer functions.)
Layer 6: The presentation layer - This is a layer, usually part of an operating
system (OS), that converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation
format to another (for example, from a text stream into a popup window with
the newly-arrived text).
Layer 5: The session layer - This layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates
conversations, exchanges, and dialogs between the applications at each end.
It deals with session and connection coordination.

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Layer 4: The transport layer - This layer manages the end-to-end control (for
example, determining whether all packets have arrived) and error-checking. It
ensures complete data transfer.

Layer 3: The network layer - This layer handles the routing of the data (sending
it in the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and
receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer does
routing and forwarding.
Layer 2: The data-link layer - This layer provides synchronization for the
physical level and does bit-stuffing for strings of 1's in excess of 5. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge and management. This layer has two sub
layers, the Logical Link Control Layer and the Media Access Control Layer.
Layer 1: The physical layer - This layer conveys the bit stream through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware
means of sending and receiving data on a carrier network.

IP address.
Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Most networks today,
including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the
standard for how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the
unique identifier for a computer is called its IP address.
There are two standards for IP addresses:-
1) IP Version 4 (IPv4)
2) IP Version 6 (IPv6).
All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting
to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two address
types mean:-

IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An
IPv4 address is expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is

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the decimal (base-10) representation for an eight-digit binary (base-2)
number, also called an octet. For example: [Link].
Class A - [Link] - [Link]

Class B - [Link] - [Link]

Class C - [Link] - [Link]
Class D - [Link] - [Link]
Class E - [Link] - [Link]
IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network.
An IPv6 address is expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16)
numbers separated by colons, as in
[Link] Groups of numbers that contain
all zeros are often omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator to mark
the gap (as in [Link]).

Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4:

• IPv6 simplified the router‘s task compared to IPv4.
• IPv6 is more compatible to mobile networks than IPv4.
• IPv6 allows for bigger payloads than what is allowed in IPv4.
• IPv6 is used by less than 1% of the networks, while IPv4 is still in use by
the remaining 99%.

Important Network & Internet Terms.

MAC address -: The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access
Control (MAC) layer in the network architecture. MAC address is usually
stored in ROM on the network adapter card and is unique.
Bandwidth -: Every line has an upper limit and a lower limit on the frequency
of signals it can carry. This limited range is called the bandwidth.

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Bookmark - When referring to the Internet or a browser, a bookmark or
electronic bookmark is a method of saving a web page's address. For
example, with most browsers pressing Ctrl + D will bookmark the page you are
viewing.
Bounce -A description of what occurs when an e-mail message returns back
to the sender as undeliverablE. Some e-mail programs also have a bounce or
bounce back feature built into them, which allows the user to bounce
messages back to the sender causing the e-mail address to appear invalid.
Buffer-When referring to memory, a buffer is a temporary storage in memory
that stores information while processing other information.
Cloud computing -A term used to describe services over a network by a
collection of servers. These computers or cloud of computers enable the
users visiting to have access to much faster computers or servers, be able to
access programs and services from anywhere with Internet access often
without having to install other software, and get access to the services from
any device capable of reaching the network or Internet
Cyber Law- Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with
the Internet, cyberspace, and their respective legal issues. Cyber law covers a
fairly broad area, encompassing several subtopics including freedom of
expression, access to and usage of the Internet, and online privacy.
Generically, cyber law has been referred to as the Law of the Internet.

DNS-: Domain Name System or Domain Name Service, a DNS is an

Internet or other network server that helps to point domain names or the
hostname to their associated IP address that was introduced by Paul
Mockapetris and Jon Postel in1984. If a domain name is not found within the
local database, the server may query other domain servers to obtain the
address of a domain name. For example, when a user is accessing the
Computer Hope domain a user would enter the easy to remember domain:
[Link]. When entered that domain name is looked up on a
Domain Name System to translate that name into an IP address that can be

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better understood by computer, E.g. [Link]. Using that IP address the
computers can then find the computer containing the Computer Hope web
page and forward that information to your computer.

E-learning- : E-learning Stands for electronic learning, E-learning (or

eLearning) is a term used to describe the process of acquiring knowledge via
the use of a computer and the Internet, intranet, or extranet, using various
types of media. The multimedia may include streaming video, audio
recordings, videoconferencing using a webcam, and even virtual worlds, such
as Second Life. It is commonly self-paced but can be led by an instructor as
well.
Phishing-: Pronounced like fishing, phishing is a term used to describe a
malicious individual or group of individuals scamming users by sending e-
mails or creating web pages that are designed to collect an individual's online
bank, credit card, or other login information. Because these e-mails and web
pages look like legitimate companies users trust them and enter their
personal information.
Pop-up-: Term used to describe a Window that appears on top of all other
Windows. This term became a well-known term with the advent of intrusive
and non-intrusive Internet pop-up ads. These ads became increasingly
annoying as this form of advertising started to become more popular with
many web pages.
Search engine-: A search engine is a software program or script available
through the Internet that searches documents and files for keywords and
returns the results of any files containing those keywords. Today, there are
thousands of different search engines available on the Internet, each with
their own abilities and features. The first search engine ever developed is
considered Archie, which was used to search for FTP files and the first text-
based search engine is considered Veronica. Today, the most popular and well
known search engine is Google.

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Server side scripting-: Server-side scripting is a method of designing
Websites so that the process or user request is run on the originating server.
These scripts provide an interface to the user and are used to limit access to
proprietary data. These scripts also work with reusability and allow the
webmaster to control access to the source code of the
script to limit any attempts at reverse engineering; additionally some of the
coding used in these scripts may even be valuable or proprietary.
ASP- : Active Server Pages, an ASP page is a dynamically created web page
that commonly ends with a .ASP extension that utilizes ActiveX scripting,
usually VBScript or JScript code. The .aspx extension is used for Web pages
that use Microsoft's [Link]. These pages are called "Web Forms", and can
contain (X)HTML code as well as [Link] code.
Web page-: A web page or webpage is a document commonly written in
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) that is accessible through the Internet or
other network using a browser. A web page is accessed by entering a URL
addresses and may contain text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages
and files.
WWW-: Short for World Wide Web, WWW sometimes also abbreviated as W3
or Web is a graphical interface for the Internet that was first introduced to the
public on August 6, 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. The World Wide Web consists of
billions of pages linked to each other that contain text, graphics, multimedia
files, and other interactive software. Unlike other services available through
the Internet, the World Wide Web provides a rich medium and helps brings all
people together. The first web site was built at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee and
put online August 6, 1991.

Firewall-: A firewall is a software utility or hardware device that limits outside

network access to a computer or local network by blocking or restricting
network ports. Firewalls are a great step for helping prevent un-authorized
access to a company or home network. The picture is an example of a
hardware firewall, the ZyXEL ZyWALL a Unified Security Gateway with a

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Firewall and other security features. In addition to hardware firewalls like that
shown above, basic hardware firewalls are also commonly found in most
network routers and can be configured and setup through the router setup.
Software firewalls are designed to protect the computer they are installed
onto by blocking any unrestricted programs from sending and receiving
information from the network or Internet. A good example of a software
Firewall is the Windows Firewall that is included with Microsoft Windows.

NIC-: Short for Network Interface Card, a NIC is also commonly referred to
as an Ethernet card and network adapter and is an expansion card that
enables a computer to connect to a network such as a home network or the
Internet using an Ethernet cable with a RJ-45 connector. The picture is an
example of a SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI network card, a network card
commonly found in most desktop computers today that do not already have
an onboard network on their motherboard.
Packet switching-: A method of distributing data over a network first
developed by Leonard leinrock between 1959 and 1962 and first widely used
on ARPANET. In packet switching, information is broken into small segments
of data known as packets and then reassembled when received at the
destination. This helps prevent any small information sent after larger
information from having to wait until the larger information has been sent.
When information is broken into packets, the information size and speed of
the line is what determines how fast it takes to send information over a
network and not the order in which it was sent.
Proxy server-: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of
the gateway server or another computer that separates a local network from
outside networks. A proxy server will cache all pages accessed through the
network allowing users who may want to visit that same page to load it faster
and reduce the networks bandwidth. When a page is accessed that is not in
the proxy server's cache, the proxy server will access the page using its own IP
address, cache the page, and forward it to the user accessing that page.

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Spam-: spam is most often considered to be electronic junk mail or junk
newsgroup postings. Some people define spam even more generally as any
unsolicited email. However, if a long-lost brother finds your email address and
sends you a message, this could hardly be called spam, even though it is
unsolicited. Real spam is generally email advertising for some product sent to
a mailing list or newsgroup. In addition to wasting people's time with
unwanted e-mail, spam also eats up a lot of network bandwidth.

Types of Computer Network

The Network allows computers to connect and share resources with other
devices through a medium. Based on the area coverage, there are three types
of computer networks.

• LAN – Local Area Network

• MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
• WAN – Wide Area Network

Local Area Network

LAN is a computer network covering a small geographical area and is privately
owned. The Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables
and coaxial cables. LAN offers high-speed communications data rates up to
1000 Mbps. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more, and congestion is less in this
network. LAN can be used for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network

MAN covers a large geographical area than LAN. It is designed for customers
who need a high-speed connectivity and it is usually owned by large
organizations to interconnect its various branches across a city. The fault
tolerance of a MAN is less and congestion in the network is more. Modem and
Wire/Cable are used as transmission devices. It may serve as an Internet
Service Provider (ISP).

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Wide Area Network
WAN covers the large geographical area and it might be restricted within the
bounds of a state or country. It could be a connection of LAN connecting to
other LAN through telephone lines and radio waves. The technology is high
speed and relatively expensive. The Speed of WAN ranges from few kilobits
per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Public packet networks,
Large corporate networks, Military networks, Banking networks, Stock
brokerage networks, and Airline reservation networks are constructed by
WAN.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) - WLAN is a wireless network

communication over short distances. This distribution method uses high-
frequency radio waves and often include an access point to the Internet. It is
also called Local Area Wireless Network (LAWN).Example - A mobile user can
connect to LAN via wireless connection.

Storage Area Network (SAN) - SAN is a high-speed special-purpose

network. It supports data storage, retrieval, and sharing of data, multiple disk
arrays, data migration from one storage device to another and uses Fibre
Channel interconnection technology.

Campus Area Network (CAN) - CAN is a computer network of

interconnected local area networks. It is larger than a LAN but smaller than
MAN or WAN. It can also stand for Corporate Area Network. Example -
Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT) Project Athena has CAN
network.

Personal Area Network (PAN) - PAN refers to the interconnection of

telecommunications devices or gadgets such as a laptop, mobile phones,
printers etc around an individual person. It can cover a network range of 30
feet (approximately 10 m). It can be constructed by using cables or it may be
wireless.

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Wireless Personal Network (WPAN) – WPAN is a type of personal area
network. It uses wireless communication to transfer data between the
connected devices of the user. It is also known as short wireless distance
network.

Interconnecting Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. Generally, some of protocols used to communicatevia an
Internet are as follows

1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP)
(a) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
It provides reliable transport service, i.e. it ensures that message sent from
sender to receiver is properly routed. TCP converts messages into a set of
packets at the source which are then reassembled back into messages at the
destination.

(b) Internet Protocol (IP)

It allows different computers to communicate by creating a network of
networks. IP handles the dispatch of packets over the network. It maintains
the addressing of packets with multiple standards. Each IP packet must
contain the source and the destination [Link] An IP address is 32 bit
number.

[Link] Transfer Protocol (FTP)

It can transfer files between any computers that have an Internet
connection and also works between computers using totally different
operating systems. Some examples of FTP software are FileZilla,
Kasablanca, gFTP, konqueror, etc.

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3. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted and what actions
should be taken by the Web servers and browsers in response to various
commands. HyperText Markup Language (HTML) It is used for designing Web
pages. A markup language is a set of markup (angular bracket, <>) tags which
tells the Web browser how to display a Web page’s words and images for the
user. Eachindividual markup code is referred to as an element or tag.

3. Telnet Protocol
Telnet is a program that runs on the computer and connects PC to a server on
the network. The protocol used on the Internet or Local Area Network. Telnet
session will started by entering valid username and password.

4. Usenet Protocol
The usenet service allows a group of Internet users to exchange their
views/ideas and information on some common topic that is of interest
to all the members belonging to that same group. Several such groups
exist on the Internet are called newsgroups. Usenet has no central
server or administration.
5. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
PPP is a dial account which puts your computer directly on the Internet.
A modem is required for such connection which transmits the data 9600
bits per second.
6. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

It is the standard protocol for E-mail services on a TCP/IP network. It

provides the ability to send and receive E-mail message.

7. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

A WAP browser is a commonly used Web browser for small mobile devices
such as cell phones.

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 8. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
It allows delivery of voice communication over‘IP’ Internet Protocol
networks. e.g. IP calls.

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 Chapter:-10
Internet
It is the global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using
standardized communication protocols (TCP/ IP).

ARPANET was the world's first fully operational packet switching computer
network, developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U.S.
Department of Defense in 1969. It connected with only four computers.
ARPANET adopted TCP/IP in 1983 and the “network of networks” became the
modern Internet.

World Wide Web - WWW is one of the services interconnected over the
internet. It is a collection of all information, resources, pictures, sounds,
multimedia on the internet which is formatted in HTML and accessed through
HTTP.

Web Server – A web server stores, processes and delivers web pages to
the users. The intercommunication between users and servers is done using
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Web Page – It is a document was written in HTML that can be accessed

through the internet by using the web browser. It is identified by Uniform
Resource Locator.

Web Browser - It is a software application that allows users to access the

websites. Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, Mozilla Firefox, UC
Browser, Apple Safari are some examples of a web browser.

Home Page – Homepage is the default page of the website.

Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) – HTML is used to create web
pages that are displayed on the Internet.

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Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - This protocol is used to transfer
data over the web. It runs on top of the TCP/IP set of protocols. It uses a
server-client model.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

It is a set of communication protocols which is used to access the internet.
TCP/IP was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in 1978.

Internet Host – Host is a computer or application which is used to transfer

the data on the internet. Each host has a unique IP address called Hostname.

Internet Protocol Address (IP Address) – It is a logical numeric address

that is used to identify the host over the internet network.
✓ The stable version of IP – IPv4 (32 bits). It is written in decimal and
separated by periods.
✓ Latest Version of IP – IPv6 (128 bits). It is written in Hexadecimal and
separated by colons.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - A uniform resource locator (URL) is

used to locate the address of a resource and protocol.

Domain Name - A domain name serves as an address which is used to

access the website. It can be universally understood by Web servers and
online organizations.
Top Level Domains are following.

.com Commercial
.net Network-oriented
.org Non-Profit Organization
.edu Education
.gov Government

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.mil Military
.int International Treaties

Domain Name System (DNS) – DNS translates domain names into IP

addresses. It has a large database of domain names and its IP addresses.

Uploading – It refers to the transmission of data or files from the computer

to the internet server. Uploaded file can be retrieved by anyone.

Downloading – It is the process of copying files from the internet to the

user’s computer.

Email - Electronic mail is the transmission of messages over the internet. In

an email, the user can attach documents, pictures, videos etc.

Carbon copy (CC) – It is used to share e-mail with one or more recipients.
Both the main recipients and other (CC) recipients can see all the mail
addresses.

Blind Carbon Copy (BCC) – In this, the recipients of the message and
other recipients (BCC) cannot see the persons who all receive the e-mail.

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 Chapter:-11
Computer & Cyber Security.
Computer security is also known as cyber security or IT security. Computer
security is a branch of information technology known as information security,
which is intended to protect computers. It is the protection of computing
systems and the data that they store or access.

Methods to Provide Protection

There are four primary methods to provide protection
1. System Access Control It ensures that unauthorised users do not get into
the system by encouraging authorised users to be security conscious.
2. Data Access Control It monitors who can access the data, and for what
purpose. Your system might support mandatory access pcontrols with these.
The system determines access rules based on the security levels of the
people, the files and the other objects in your system.
3. System and Security Administration It performs offline procedures that
make or break secure system.
4. System Design It takes advantages of basic hardware and software security
characteristics.

Components of Computer Security

1. Confidentiality It ensures that data is not accessed by any unauthorised
person.
2. Integrity It ensures that information is not altered by any unauthorised
person in such a way that it is not detectable by authorised users.
3. Authentication It ensures that users are the persons they claim to be.

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4. Access Control It ensures that users access only those resources that they
are allowed to access.
5. Non-Repudiation It ensures that originators of messages cannot deny they

are not sender of the message.

6. Availability It ensures that systems work promptly and service is not denied
to authorised users.
7. Privacy It ensures that individual has the right to use the information and
allows another to use that information.
8. Stenography It is an art of hiding the existence of a message. It aids
confidentiality and integrity of the data.
9. Cryptography It is the science of writing information in a ‘hidden’ or ‘secret’
form and an ancient art. It protects the data in transmit and also the data
stored on the disk.

Some terms commonly used in cryptography are as follows

(i) Plain text It is the original message that is an input.
(ii) Cipher It is a bit-by-bit or character-by- character transformation without
regard to the meaning of the message.
(iii) Cipher Text It is the coded message or the encrypted data.

(iv) Encryption It is the process of converting plain text to cipher text, using an
encryption algorithm.
(v) Decryption It is the reverse of encryption, i.e. converting cipher text to
plaint ext.

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Sources of Cyber Attack
The most potent and vulnerable threat of computer users is virus attacks. A
computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer
to another and that interferes with computer operation. It is imperative for
every computer user to be aware about the software and its programs that can
help to protect the personal computers from attacks.
The sources of attack can be follow
1. Downloadable Programs Downloadable files are one of the best possible
sources of virus. Any type of executable file like games, screen saver are one
of the major sources. If you want to download programs from the Internet then
it is necessary to scan every program before downloading them.

2. Cracked Software These softwares are another source of virus attacks.

Such cracked forms of illegal files contain virus and bugs that are difficult to
detect as well as to remove. Hence, it is always a preferable option to
download software from the appropriate source.
3. E-mail Attachments These attachments are the most common source of
viruses. You must handle E-mail attachments with extreme care, especially if
the E-mail comes from an unknown sender.
4. Internet Majority of all computer users are unaware as when viruses attack
computer systems. Almost all computer users click or download everything
that comes their way and hence unknowingly invites the possibility of virus
attacks.

5. Booting from Unknown CD When the computer system is not working, it is a

good practice to remove the CD. If you do not remove the CD, it may start to
boot automatically from the disk which enhances the possibility of virus
attacks.

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 Computer Virus
A computer virus is a malicious software program loaded onto a user’s
computer without the user’s knowledge and performs malicious actions.
Stuxnet, Petya, Wanna cry, Code red, Melissa, Sasser, Zeus, Mydoom, Crypto
Locker, Flashback are some example of Viruses.

• The Elk Cloner virus was the first self-replicating computer program to
spread on a large scale. It was created by a 15-year-old Rich Skrenta in
1982. Ryuk, Troldesh are ransomware family of newly discovered
viruses.

Computer Worm
A computer worm is a malicious, self-replicating software program (malware)
which affects the functions of software and hardware programs. Stuxnet is
the most famous computer worm.

Ransomware - Ransomware is a type of malware program that infects and

takes control of a system. It infects a computer with the intention of extorting
money from its owner.

Botnet – Botnet is a set of networks connected computers/devices that are

used for malicious purposes. Each computer in a botnet is called Bot. It is
also known as Zombie.

Trojan horse – It is a type of malware that presents itself as legitimate

software. It may perform actions on a computer that is genuine but will install
malware actions.

Keylogger - A keylogger is a type of malware that stores all keystrokes of a

computer. It can record all sorts of personal information, such as usernames,
passwords, credit card numbers, and personal documents such as emails
and reports.

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Rootkit - A rootkit is a secret computer program designed to provide
continued access to a computer while actively hiding its presence. Rootkits
are associated with malware such as Trojans, worms, viruses.

Spyware - Spyware is a software that is installed on a computing device

without the end user's knowledge. It steals internet usage data and sensitive
information such as usernames and passwords, activating the microphone or
camera on a computer to record physical activity.

Adware - Adware is unwanted software designed to display advertisements

on the computer screen to generate income. This type of ads cannot be
removed easily.

Phishing – Phishing is a cyber-attack that used to steal user data, including

login credentials and credit card numbers. They use email as a weapon and
trick the email recipient into believing that the message is received from real
companies such as banks, Amazon etc to harvest the recipient’s details.
Email Phishing, Spear Phishing (targets special person/organization) are
techniques of Phishing.

Smurfing - It is a type of denial-of-service attack that relies on flooding a

network with a large volume of traffic through the manipulation of IP
addresses in that network. This type of attack can result in a high volume of
excess activity, which can overwhelm a server or IT setup.

Some common viruses are tabulated below

• 1971 Creeper
• 1982 Elk Cloner
• 1988 The Morris Internet Worm
• 1999 Melissa
• 2000 I Love You
• 2001 Code Red
• 2003 SQL Slammer
• 2003 Blaster

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 • 2004 Sasser
• 2010 Stuxnet
• 2011 Trojan
• 2012 Rootkit
• 2014 Generic PUP
• 2014 Net Worm

Solutions to Computer Security Threats

Antivirus Software
It is an application software that is designed to prevent, search for, detect and
remove viruses and other malicious softwares like worms, trojans, adware
and more. It consists of computer programs that attempt to identify threats
and eliminate computer viruses and other malware.

Some popular Antiviruses

(i) Avast
(ii) Avg
(iii) K7
(iv) Kaspersky
(v) Trend Micro
(vi) Quick Heal
(vii) Symantec
(viii) Norton
(ix) McAfee

Digital Certificate
It is the attachment to an electronic message used for security purposes. The
common use of a digital certificate is to verify that a user sending a message
is who he or she claims to be, and to provide the receiver with the means to
encode a reply. It provides a means of proving your identity in electronic
transactions.

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Digital Signature
It is an electronic form of a signature that can be used to authenticate the
identity of the sender of a message or the signer of a document, and also
ensure that the original content of the message or document that has been
sent is unchanged.

Firewall
It can either be software based or hardware based and is used to help in
keeping a network secure. Its primary objective is to control the incoming and
outgoing network traffic by analysing the data packets and determining
whether it should be allowed through or not, based on a predetermined rule
set. A network’s firewall builds a bridge between an internal network that is
assumed to be secure and trusted, and another network, usually an external
(inter) network, such as the Internet, that is not assumed to be secure and
trusted. A firewall also includes or works with a proxy server that makes
network requests on behalf of workstation users.

Password
It is a secret word or a string of characters used for user authentication to
prove identity or access approval to gain access to a resource. A password is
typically somewhere between 4 to 16 characters, depending on how the
computer system is setup. When a password is entered, the computer system
is careful not to display the characters on the display screen, in case others
might see [Link] are two common modes of password as follows
(i) Weak Password Easily remember just like names, birth dates, phone
number etc.
(ii) Strong Password Difficult to break and acombination of alphabets and
symbols.

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File Access Permission
Most current file systems have methods of assigning permissions or access
rights to specific user and group of users. These systems control the ability of
the users to view or make changes to the contents of the file system. File
access permission refers to privileges that allow a user to read, write or
execute a file. There are three specific file access permissions as
follows

(i) Read Permission If you have read permission of a file, you can only see the
contents. In case of directory, access means that the user can read the
contents.
(ii) Write Permission If you have write permission of a file, you can only modify
or remove the contents of a file. In case of directory, you can add or delete
contents to the files of the directory.
(iii) Execute Permission If you have execute permission of a file, you can only
execute a file. In case of directory, you must have execute access to the bin
directory in order to execute it or cd command.

Terms Related to Security

1. Eavesdropping The attacker monitors transmissions for message content.
2. Masquerading The attacker impersonates an authorised user and thereby
gain certain unauthorised privilege.
3. Patches It is a piece of software designed to fix problems with a computer
program or its supporting data. This includes fixing security vulnerabilities and
other bugs and improving the usability and performance.
4. Logic Bomb It is a piece of code intentionally inserted into a computer’s
memory that will set off a malicious function when specified conditions are
met. They are also called slag code and does not replicate itself.

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5. Application Gateway This applies security mechanisms to specific
applications such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Telnet services.
6. Proxy Server It can act as a firewall by responding to input packets in the
manner of an application while blocking other packets. It hides the true
network addresses and used to intercept all messages entering and leaving
the network.
■ Keylogger is a software program designed to record every keystroke on the
machine on which it runs.
■ The legal right to use software based on specific restrictions is granted via
Software license.
■ Payloads is code in the worm designed to do more than spread the worm.
Bomb virus has a delayed payload.
■ Software Piracy means copying of data or computer software without the
owner’s permission.

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