Pressure Measuring Instruments

Introduction: Pressure measuring instruments are essential tools used in various fields and
industries to quantify and monitor pressure changes in gases or liquids. Understanding pressure is
crucial in engineering, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and other disciplines. This lecture note
provides an overview of common pressure measuring instruments, their principles of operation,
and their practical applications.

1. Manometer:

 A manometer is a simple and widely used pressure measuring instrument that utilizes a liquid
column to determine the pressure difference between two points.
 It consists of a U-shaped tube partially filled with a liquid (typically mercury or water).
 The pressure at one end (P1) is the unknown pressure, and the other end (P2) is usually open to
the atmosphere (zero reference pressure).
 The height difference of the liquid column in the two arms of the U-tube indicates the pressure
difference between P1 and P2.
 Manometers are mainly used for low-pressure measurements and as pressure calibrators.

2. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

 Bourdon tube pressure gauges are mechanical devices used to measure medium to high pressures.
 The gauge consists of a curved, flattened tube that is closed at one end and connected to the
pressure source at the other end.
 When pressure is applied, the Bourdon tube tends to straighten due to the internal pressure, and
this deformation is translated into the movement of a pointer on a calibrated dial, indicating the
pressure reading.
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges are commonly used in various applications due to their simplicity,
reliability, and cost-effectiveness.

3. Diaphragm Pressure Gauge:

 Diaphragm pressure gauges are used for low-pressure measurements and applications that require
high sensitivity.
 They consist of a flexible diaphragm that deforms under the influence of the applied pressure.
 The deformation of the diaphragm is typically transferred mechanically to a pointer on a calibrated
dial, providing pressure readings.
 Diaphragm pressure gauges are commonly used in applications where accuracy and sensitivity are
critical, such as in medical devices and laboratory instruments.

4. Pressure Transducers:

 Pressure transducers, also known as pressure sensors or pressure transmitters, are electronic
devices used to convert pressure into electrical signals.
 They often use various technologies, such as strain gauges, piezoelectric elements, or capacitance,
to measure pressure variations.
 The electrical signal generated by the transducer can be further processed, displayed, or transmitted
to control systems or data acquisition systems.
 Pressure transducers are widely used in modern industrial processes due to their accuracy,
compatibility with digital systems, and ability to provide real-time data.

5. Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor:

 Piezoelectric pressure sensors utilize the piezoelectric effect, where certain materials generate an
electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress.
 Pressure applied to the sensor causes mechanical deformation, which generates an electric charge
proportional to the pressure.
 These sensors are used in dynamic pressure measurements, such as blast tests, shockwaves, and
vibration studies, where fast response and high-frequency measurements are required.

6. Capacitive Pressure Sensor:

 Capacitive pressure sensors work based on changes in capacitance due to applied pressure.
 A diaphragm or membrane is placed between two electrodes, forming a capacitor.
 When pressure is applied, the diaphragm's deformation changes the distance between the
electrodes, altering the capacitance, and the pressure is measured.
 Capacitive pressure sensors find applications in various industries, including automotive,
aerospace, and medical fields.

Conclusion: Pressure measuring instruments are indispensable tools used across a wide range of
industries and applications. Understanding the principles of operation, advantages, and limitations
of different pressure measuring instruments is crucial for accurate and reliable pressure
measurements. From the simple and traditional manometer to sophisticated electronic pressure
transducers, each instrument plays a unique role in quantifying and monitoring pressure changes,
contributing to the advancement of science, engineering, and technology.

Derivation of units for pressure

The unit of pressure can be derived from fundamental units using the International System of Units
(SI). Pressure is defined as force per unit area, and its unit is named after the scientist Blaise Pascal.
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to one Newton per square meter
(N/m²). The derivation of the units for pressure is as follows:

1. The unit of force is the Newton (N). One Newton is defined as the force required to accelerate a
one-kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared (1 N = 1 kg·m/s²).
2. The unit of area is the square meter (m²). A square meter is the area of a square with sides of one
meter in length.
3. Pressure (P) is defined as force (F) per unit area (A):
P=F/A
4. Substituting the units of force and area into the pressure equation:
P = N / m²
5. To simplify the unit expression, we use the name "Pascal" (Pa) for pressure:
1 Pa = 1 N / m²

Thus, the Pascal (Pa) is the derived SI unit for pressure, and it represents the force of one Newton
distributed uniformly over an area of one square meter. Other common units of pressure include
kilopascals (kPa), megapascals (MPa), bars, atmospheres (atm), and millimeters of mercury
(mmHg). These units are derived from the Pascal using appropriate prefixes or conversion factors,
making them suitable for different applications and scales.

We conclude with a discussion of the units for pressure measurements. Recall that pressure is
defined as the force per area. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, which is one newton per
square meter.

For example, atmospheric pressure varies with the weather and is usually about 100 kilopascals.
Another common unit for measuring atmospheric pressure is mm of mercury, whose value is
usually about 760 mm. Put another way, if the closed end of the tube in Case 3 above contains a
vacuum, the height h is about 760 mm.

In many situations, measuring pressures in units of length of the liquid in the manometer is
perfectly adequate. The remainder of this document discusses how to convert from those units to
pascals.

The figure to the right shows a cylinder of liquid of

height h and area A.

The weight of the cylinder is its mass m times the acceleration

due to gravity g. This is the force exerted by the cylinder of
liquid on whatever is just below it:

F=mg

The pressure p is this force divided by the area A of the face of

the cylinder.

p = F/A

The mass of the cylinder is the density of the liquid times

the volume V.

m= V
 The volume is the area A of the face of the cylinder times its
height h.

V=Ah

So, the pressure p is:

p =F/A
= mg / A
= Vg/A
= Ah g / A
= hg

Thus, if , h and g are measured in SI units, the pressure p will be in pascals. Note that the value
is independent of the area of the cylinder.

Using a manometer to measure pressure is a straightforward process. Follow these steps to use a
simple U-shaped liquid manometer:

Step 1: Set Up the Manometer

 Place the U-shaped manometer on a level surface and ensure that it is free from any obstructions
or leaks.
 Fill the U-tube with an appropriate liquid (e.g., mercury or water) through the open end until the
liquid level reaches the zero mark on both sides of the U-tube.

Step 2: Connect the Manometer

 Connect one end of the manometer to the point where you want to measure the pressure (e.g., a
gas or liquid source). This will be the high-pressure side (P1).
 Leave the other end open to the atmosphere. This will serve as the reference point for the pressure
measurement (P2).

Step 3: Read the Manometer

 Observe the difference in the height of the liquid columns in the two arms of the U-tube.
 The height difference, h, between the two liquid columns represents the pressure difference
between the point of interest (P1) and the atmospheric pressure (P2).

Step 4: Convert to Pressure

 Determine the density of the liquid used in the manometer (ρ).

 Convert the height difference (h) to the corresponding pressure difference (ΔP) using the formula:
ΔP = ρ * g * h
 ΔP = Pressure difference (P1 - P2) in pascals (Pa)
 ρ = Density of the liquid in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³)
 g = Acceleration due to gravity in meters per second squared (m/s²)
 h = Height difference of the liquid column in meters

Step 5: Calculate the Absolute Pressure (P1)

 To find the absolute pressure at the point of interest (P1), add the pressure difference (ΔP) to the
atmospheric pressure (P2) on the low-pressure side of the manometer.
 Absolute pressure (P1) = Atmospheric pressure (P2) + Pressure difference (ΔP)

Step 6: Record the Pressure Measurement

 Note down the absolute pressure (P1) for your pressure measurement at the desired point.

Step 7: Safety Precautions

 Always handle the manometer and the connecting lines with care to avoid any damage or leakage.
 Ensure that the liquid used in the manometer is appropriate for the pressure range and the specific
application.

Step 8: Clean Up

 After the pressure measurement is complete, disconnect the manometer carefully and drain the
liquid from the U-tube.
 Clean the manometer and store it properly for future use.

Remember, different types of manometers may have variations in their setup and usage, but the
basic principles remain the same. Always refer to the manufacturer's instructions for specific
guidelines on using the manometer you have.

Diagram of manometer
As an AI text-based model, I am unable to generate visual content like diagrams directly. However,
I can describe how a simple U-shaped manometer looks like and its components.

Diagram Description of a Simple U-Shaped Manometer:

A U-shaped manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube, partially filled with a liquid (usually
mercury, water, or oil). The two ends of the U-tube are open, and one end is connected to the point
where pressure is to be measured (P1), while the other end is open to the atmosphere (P2).
1. U-Shaped Glass Tube: The main body of the manometer is a transparent glass tube, shaped like
the letter "U." The tube has a narrow bore to allow precise measurement of liquid column height.
2. Liquid Column: The U-shaped tube is partially filled with a liquid. The liquid level on both sides
of the U-tube is determined by the pressures at the two ends of the manometer.
3. Reference Scale: The glass tube usually has a calibrated scale alongside it. The scale provides a
numerical indication of the pressure difference between the two ends of the manometer.
4. Liquid Reservoir: On one side of the U-tube, there is a small liquid reservoir. It allows for the
liquid level adjustment and ensures that the liquid column does not reach the top of the tube or
cause any leakage.
5. Pressure Connection Ports: At the two ends of the U-tube, there are connecting ports or tubes.
One port is used to connect the manometer to the point where the pressure is to be measured (P1).
The other port remains open to the atmosphere, serving as the reference pressure (P2).

Operating Principle: When the manometer is connected to the pressure source (P1), the pressure
difference between P1 and the atmospheric pressure (P2) causes the liquid level in the U-tube to
shift. The liquid in one arm of the U-tube rises, while the other arm's liquid level drops. The height
difference of the liquid columns in the two arms of the U-tube is directly related to the pressure
difference between P1 and P2.

By measuring the height difference using the reference scale, the pressure at P1 can be determined
using the appropriate unit conversion based on the liquid's density and the acceleration due to
gravity.

Please note that there are different variations of manometers, including inclined tube manometers,
well-type manometers, and digital manometers. Each type may have additional features and
components, but the fundamental principle of measuring pressure using a liquid column remains
consistent.
Lecture Notes on Recorders and Reproducers

Introduction: Recorders and reproducers are devices used to capture, store, and play back various
forms of data, including audio, video, and digital information. They have played a crucial role in
the evolution of technology and communication, enabling the preservation and dissemination of
knowledge, entertainment, and scientific research. This lecture note provides an overview of
recorders and reproducers, their types, working principles, and applications.

1. Analog Audio Recorders and Reproducers:

 Analog audio recorders were prevalent before the digital era and used to capture and store audio
signals.
 The recording process involved converting analog sound waves into electrical signals, which were
then etched onto a physical medium such as magnetic tape or vinyl records.
 During playback, the recorded signals were converted back into analog audio for listening.
 Although digital audio technology has largely replaced analog systems, analog audio recorders
and players remain relevant in niche applications, such as music enthusiasts and audiophiles who
appreciate the distinctive sound of analog recordings.
 2. Digital Audio Recorders and Reproducers:

 Digital audio recorders and players are based on digital technology, converting audio signals into
digital data for storage and playback.
 The recording process involves analog-to-digital conversion, where analog sound waves are
sampled and quantized into digital bits.
 During playback, digital-to-analog conversion occurs, converting the digital data back into analog
audio for listening.
 Digital audio offers advantages such as higher fidelity, ease of editing, and the ability to store and
organize large amounts of audio data.

3. Analog Video Recorders and Reproducers:

 Analog video recorders, such as VHS and Betamax, were widely used before the digital age for
video recording and playback.
 The recording process involved capturing video signals as analog information on magnetic tapes.
 During playback, the analog signals were converted back into video images and audio for display
and listening.
 Analog video recorders have been largely replaced by digital video formats and digital video
recorders (DVRs) due to superior quality and versatility.

4. Digital Video Recorders and Reproducers:

 Digital video recorders (DVRs) are widely used in modern video recording and playback systems.
 DVRs store video data in digital formats, offering higher resolution, clarity, and flexibility for
editing and organizing video content.
 Digital video files can be easily transferred, shared, and streamed over networks, making DVRs
essential for security systems, entertainment, and media distribution.

5. Data Recorders and Reproducers:

 Data recorders and players are used to store and retrieve digital data, such as computer files,
images, and documents.
 Data can be recorded on various storage media, including hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs),
optical discs, and USB flash drives.
 Data recorders play a vital role in data backup, archiving, and data transfer between different
devices.

Conclusion: Recorders and reproducers have revolutionized communication, entertainment, and

data storage. From analog audio and video recorders to digital audio players, video recorders, and
data storage devices, these technologies have shaped the modern world. Understanding the
working principles, advantages, and limitations of different recorders and reproducers is essential
for making informed decisions on selecting and utilizing appropriate devices for various
applications.