Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

Microprocessors & Microcontrollers

Module:1
By
Dr. Vivek Rajpoot
Assistant Professor Sr. Grade-1(SENSE)
Cabin: CBMR 104
[email protected]
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Introduction to Microprocessors
• Microprocessor (μP) is the “brain” of a computer that has been implemented on
one semiconductor chip.
• The word comes from the combination micro and processor.
• Processor means a device that processes whatever(binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s)
• To process means to manipulate. It describes all manipulation.
• Micro -> extremely small
• Definition: The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in
numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical operations according to the
program stored in memory and then produces other numbers as a result
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Generalized Block Diagram

✓ controls the computer
and performs all
ALU performs arithmetic and Communication through calculations.
logical operations on the data I/O Port/Bus
✓ ability to perform
received from an input device various operations
or memory quickly

Register array consists of

registers identified by
letters like B, C, D, E, H, L,
and accumulator.

Control unit controls the

instructions and flow of
data within the computer
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Working of μP
There are three steps that a microprocessor follows –

• Fetch – The instructions are in storage from where the processor fetches
them.
• Decode – It then decodes the instruction to assign the task further.
During this, the arithmetic and logic unit also performs to register the
data temporarily.
• Execute – The assigned tasks undergo execution and reach the output
port in binary form.
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Some Important Concepts

• Microcomputer: The μP along with I/O devices and memory is called
μComputer.
• Microcontroller: If we built the whole μComputer on a single chip then
it is called μC. Ex- DMA (Direct Memory Access)
• Machine Language: To instruct a machine one must give the
instructions in the form of 1 and 0. This binary language is simply
referred as Machine Language. Ex- 8085 instruction set.
• Assembly Language: We use English like words for understanding in
the instruction set, These words are known as mnemonics and a language
made up of mnemonics is called Assembly Language.
Ex: MOV A B → (2A)H → 0010 1010
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Some Important Concepts

• Assembler: Used to convert mnemonics into machine language.
• Low-Level Language: Machine-specific languages are called low-level
languages. Ex- Instruction set of 8085, 8086 etc.
• Note: All machine-level languages and assembly-level languages come
under low-level languages.
• High-Level Language: Languages that are not machine-specific i.e. C,
C++, Python, JAVA etc.
• Note: A program with English-like words in high-level language is called
Source code. While the corresponding machine-understandable code is
called object code and here Interpreter/Compiler is used to convert the
source code into object code.
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8 Bit μP (8085)
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8 Bit μP (8085)
• 40 Pin IC.
• Appended version of 8080 (RIM & SIM instructions are added)
• 8 bit μP.
• Operating Frequency 3 MHz.
• Power supply 5V.
• Maximum attachable memory to 8085 is 64 KB.
• 5 Flags bits in a 8-bit register. (S , Z , --- , Ay , --- , P , ---, Cy)
• 5 hardware interrupts (TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTR).
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8 Bit μP (8085)
• Some instructions of Intel 8085 microprocessor are: MOV, MVI, LDA,
STA, ADD, SUB, RAL, INR, MVI, etc
• Each instruction contains two parts: Opcode (Operation code –what to
do) and Operand (data that has to be operated on)
• The Operand (or data) given in the instruction may be in various forms
such as 8-bit or 16-bit data, 8-bit or 16-bit address, internal registers or a
register or memory location.
• Instruction Types: 1 byte (Ex. MOV A, B) , 2 byte (Ex. MVI B, 05) , 3
byte (Ex. LXI H, 2400H)
• 5 Addressing Modes: Direct, Register, Immediate, Register Indirect,
Implied.
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8 Bit μP (8085)
• Instruction cycle: The total time taken to complete a task given in instruction
is called instruction cycle. It can have many machine cycles.
• Machine Cycle: Time taken by μP to complete one execution of memory
read/write, I/O read/write. Total 5 machine cycles are available.
(1) Fetch MC: to fetch opcode. It is usually having 4T states (F). The special fetch
MC (S) has 6T states and is used only in 5 instructions (CRISP).
(2) Memory Read Cycle (Mr): 3T states
(3) Memory Write Machine Cycle (Mw): 3T States
(4) I/P read machine cycle (Ir): 3T States
(5) O/P write machine cycle (Ow): 3T States
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μP Generations
Intel 4004
• Introduced in 1971. It was the first microprocessor by Intel.
• It was a 4-bit μP with clock speed 740KHz.
• It had 2,300 transistors.
• It could execute 60K instructions/second.
Intel 4040
• Introduced in 1971.
• It was also 4-bit μP.
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μP Generations
Intel 8008
• Introduced in 1972.
• It was first 8-bit μP.
• its clock speed was 500 KHz.
• Could execute 50K instructions/second.
Intel 8080
• Introduced in 1974. World’s first general purpose μP. It is again a 8-bit
μP. It was used in the first personal computer.
• Clock speed of 2 MHz and 60k instruction per second. Clock speed of
500kHz and 50k instructions per second.
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μP Generations
Intel 8085
• Introduced in 1976.
• Functionally complete 8-bit CPU.
• Most Popular.
• On-chip clock generator present.
• It could access 64 KB of memory.
• It had 246 instructions.
• Optimum set of registers and powerful performance gave good
performance.
• 769230 instruction per second with 3 MHz speed.
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μP Generations
Intel 8086
• Introduced in 1978. First 16-bit μP.
• Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz (with different versions)
• Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit.
• It had 29,000 transistors.
• Could execute 2.5 million instructions/second.
• It could access 1 MB of memory.
• It had 22,000 instructions.
• Most importantly it had segmented memory scheme.
 Evolution of Microprocesors Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

Transistor was invented in 1948 (23 December 1947 in Bell lab). IC was invented in 1958 (Fair Child Semiconductors)
By Texas Instruments J Kilby. The first microprocessor was invented by INTEL(INTegrated ELectronics)
Name & Bit Size Description Limitations/Improvements
Year
4004 4 1st Microprocessor having 2300 Transistors. With evolution in Very few instructions per
(1971) semiconductor Technology more transistors were then used in second. Used for simple
process arithmetic and logical operations
8008 8 1st 8 bit Microprocessor. It was useful for arithmetic and logic
(1972) operations on 8-bit words

8080 8 World’s first general purpose microprocessor. It was an 8-bit machine, All 8 bit microprocessors have
(1974) with an 8-bit data path to memory. It was used in the first personal limited memory, addressing
computer. Incomplete CPU. Clock speed of 2 MHz and 60k instruction capacity, slow speed of
per second. Clock speed of 500kHz and 50k instructions per second. execution, addressing modes etc.
8085 8 Functionally complete CPU. Most Popular. On-chip clock generator
(1976) present. Optimum set of registers and powerful performance gave
good performance. 769230 instruction per second with 3 MHz speed.
8086 16 1st 16 bit microprocessor which overcomes most of the limitations of
(1978) previous generation. It had a wider data path of 16-bits and larger
registers along with an instruction cache or queue ,rich instruction set
and more important had segmented memory scheme. It also had
multiply and divide instructions
 Evolution of Microprocesors (contd…) Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

Name & Bit Size Description Limitations/Improvements

Year
8088 16 Cheaper version of 8086 and 8-bit external bus. Used in IBM PC. Both 8086/88 didn’t have
(1980) memory management and
protection capability.
80286 16 Addressable memory of 16 MB instead of just 1 MB and contains two
(1982) modes-real mode and first generation 16-bit protected mode Limitation on maximum segment
size
.
80386 32 Intel’s first 32-bit machine. Due to its 32-bit architecture it was able to
(1985) compete against the complexity and power of microcomputers and
mainframes introduced just a few years earlier. It was the first
processor to support multitasking and contained the 32-bit protected
mode.
80387 32 Variant of 80386. It supported high speed environment. Integrated
(1986) Math Co-processor

80486 32 Introduced the concept of cache technology and instruction

(1989) pipelining which increased processor speed and optimized instruction
set.