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Module 2 Amplitude Modulation

Fundamentals
2 AM Concepts
AM Concepts
Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the the amplitude and frequency variations of the message signal keeping phase and frequency
of a carrier wave constant.
Fig. 1 shows a single frequency sinusoidal modulating wave, single frequency sinusoidal
higherfrequency carrier and modulated carrier wave.
The signals which are shown in Fig. 1 show the variation of the carrier amplitude with respect to time
and are said to be in the time domain.

Fig. 1: Amplitude modulation

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Mathematical Expression

Consider a sinusoidal carrier signal which is used for modulation, can be expressed as

vc = Vcsin2πfct
where
vc instantaneous value of the carrier signal
Vc maximum amplitude of the unmodulated carrier sine signal fc
frequency of the carrier signal

Similarly sinusoidal message signal which is used for modulation, can be expressed as

vm = Vmsin2πfmt
where
vm instantaneous value of the message signal Vm
maximum amplitude of the message signal fm
frequency of the message signal

The amplitude of the modulating signal should be less than the amplitude of the carrier.
Mathematically,

Vm < Vc

The peak value of the carrier is the reference point for the modulating signal. The value of the modulating
signal is added to or subtracted from the peak value of the carrier. The instantaneous value of either the top
or the bottom voltage envelope v1 is given as:

v1 = Vc + vm
= Vc + Vmsin2πfmt

The instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave v2 by substituting v1 for the peak value of carrier
voltage Vc as follows:

v2 = v1 × sin2πfct
= (Vc + Vmsin2πfmt)sin2πfct
= Vcsin2πfct + Vmsin2πfmtsin2πfct

c c

Fig. 2: AM modulator

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v2 = Vcsin2πfct + Vmsin2πfmtsin2πfct

2.1 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation

To get undistorted AM signal, the modulating signal voltage Vm must be less than the carrier voltage Vc
i.e., Vm < Vc. The relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal Vm and the amplitude of the
carrier signal Vc is known as the modulation index m. The modulation index should be a number between 0
and 1. Modulation index m is the ratio of Vm to Vc which is expressed as

The percentage of modulation index is expressed as

Fig. 3 The
AM wave
peak value of the modulating signal Vm is

where
Vmax is the maximum amplitude of the message signal
Vmin is the minimum amplitude of the message signal

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The peak value of the carrier signal Vc is

where
Vmax is the maximum amplitude of the message signal
Vmin is the minimum amplitude of the message signal

The modulation index is

• For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which means the modulation
depth should be 100%.
• If the value of modulation index is less than 1, then it is called as under modulation. Such a wave is
called as an under modulated wave.

• If the value of modulation index is greater than 1, then it is called as over modulation. Such a wave is
called as an over modulated wave.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5
Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax(p−p) value read from the graticule on the oscilloscope screen is 5.9
divisions and Vmin(p−p) is 1.2 divisions. a. What is the modulation index? b. Calculate Vc, Vm, and m if the vertical
scale is 2 V per division.

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2.3 Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new signals at different frequencies are generated
as part of the process. These new frequencies, which are called side frequencies, or sidebands. The sidebands
occur at frequencies that are the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies.
2.3.1 Sideband Calculations
When only a single frequency sine wave modulating signal is used, the modulation process generates two
sidebands. If the modulating signal is a complex wave, such as voice or video, a whole range of frequencies
modulate the carrier, and thus a whole range of sidebands are generated. Amplitude Modulated signal is
expressed as:

where the first term is the carrier the second term, containing the
difference fc − fm, is the upper sideband; the third term, containing the sum
fc + fm, is the lower sideband.

fUSB = fc + fm

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f LSB = f c − f m

fc fm fc fc fm Frequency
LSB USB

Fig. 6
Consider a 400-Hz tone modulates a 300-kHz carrier. The upper and lower sidebands are

fUSB = fc + fm = 300,000 + 400 = 300,400 = 300.4 kHz fLSB = fc − fm =

300,000 − 400 = 299,600 = 299.6 kHz

Consider a voice frequencies occur in the 300-to 3000-Hz range. If the carrier frequency is 2.8 MHz (2800
kHz), then the maximum and minimum sideband frequencies are: (Highest frequency component of
message signal is 3000-Hz or 3kHz)

fUSB = fc + fm = 2800 + 3 = 2803 kHz fLSB = fc − fm

= 2800 − 3 = 2797 kHz

The total bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower sideband frequencies:

BW = fUSB − fLSB = 2803 − 2797 = 6kHz

Also the bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the highest frequency in the modulating signal:

BW = 2fm = 2 × 3 = 6kHz

where fm is the maximum modulating frequency. For voice signal the maximum frequency is 3 kHz.

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797 kHz 2800 kHz 2803 kHz

3 kHz 3 kHz

300 Hz

300 Hz

Lower Upper
sidebands sidebands

3 kHz fc fc 3 kHz
Frequency

Fig. 7
A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM
station is transmitting on a frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum and minimum upper and lower
sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM station.

fUSB = fc + fm = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz fLSB = fc − fm

= 980 − 5 = 975 kHz

BW = fUSB − fLSB = 985 − 975 = 10kHz

BW = 2fm = 2 × 5 = 10kHz
An AM broadcast station has a total bandwidth of 10 kHz. In addition, AM broadcast stations are spaced
every 10 kHz across the spectrum from 540 to 1600 kHz. This is illustrated in 8. The sidebands from the first
AM broadcast frequency extend down to 535 kHz and up to 545 kHz, forming a 10-kHz channel for the signal.
The highest channel frequency is 1600 kHz, with sidebands extending from 1595 up to 1605 kHz. There are
a total of 107 10-kHz-wide channels for AM radio stations.

AM total bandwidth is:

AM bandwidth = 1600 − 540 = 1070

No of channels

= = 107
540 kHz 550 kHz 560 kHz 1590 kHz 1600 kHz
1605 kHz
535 kHz

1 2 3 106 107
10 kHz
channel

Fig. 8: AM broadcast band.

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2.4 AM Power
In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier and fed to the antenna with a ideally
pure resistance. The AM signal is a composite of the carrier and the two sidebands, and each of these signals
produces power in the antenna. The total transmitted power PT is the sum of the carrier power Pc and the
power in the two sidebands PUSB and PLSB

PT = Pc + PUSB + PLSB
Amplitude Modulated signal is expressed as:

In this equation Vc and Vm are peak values of the carrier and modulating sine waves, respectively. For
power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages. We can convert from peak to rms by√

dividing the peak value by 2 or multiplying by 0.707. The rms carrier and sideband voltages are then

The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by using the power formula

where
P is the output powerV is the rms output voltage and R is the resistive part of the load
impedance, which is usually an antenna.
To calculate the power the coefficients on the sine and cosine terms are sufficient.

The modulating signal Vm in terms of the carrier Vc is expressed by the modulation index m as

Vm = mVc

Carrier power is expressed as

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If the carrier of an AM transmitter is 1000 W and it is modulated 100 percent (m = 1), the total AM power
is

Of the total power, 1000 W of it is in the carrier. Remaining 500 W in both sidebands and each sideband has
250 W.
For a 100 percent modulated AM transmitter, the total sideband power is always one-half that of the carrier
power.
A 50-kW transmitter carrier that is 100 percent modulated will have a sideband power of 25 kW, with
12.5 kW in each sideband. The total power for the AM signal is the sum of the carrier and sideband power,
or 75 kW.
Consider a 70 percent modulated 250-W carrier, the total power in the composite AM signal is

Of the total, 250 W is in the carrier, leaving 311.25 - 250 = 61.25 W in the sidebands. There is
30.625 W in each sideband.
An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The percentage of modulation is 85 percent. Calculate
(a) the total power and (b) the power in one sideband.
(a) the total power

(b) the power in one sideband.

PSB(both) = PT − PC = 40.8 − 30 = 10.8 W

In the real world, it is difficult to determine AM power by measuring the output voltage and calculating
the power with the expression

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However, it is easy to measure the current in the load. When the antenna impedance is known, the output
power is easily calculated by using the formula

PT = IT2 × R

where

where IC is the unmodulated carrier current in the load, and m is the modulation index.
Q For example, the total output power of an 85 percent modulated AM transmitter,
whoseunmodulated carrier current into a 50Ω antenna load impedance is 10 A, is

2.5 Single-Sideband Modulation

The amplitude modulated signal consists of carrier signal and two sidebands. In amplitude modulation, two-
thirds of the transmitted power is in the carrier, which itself conveys no information. The real information
is contained within the sidebands. Only one sideband is sufficient to extract the message signal at the
receiver. To improve the efficiency of amplitude modulation is to suppress the carrier and eliminate one
sideband. The result is a single sideband (SSB) signal.

2.5.1 DSB Signals

The modulated signal consists of carrier signal, upper and lower sidebands signals. In generating SSB signal
first suppress the carrier and leaving the upper and lower sidebands. This type of signal is referred to as a
double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC or DSB) signal.
The algebraic sum of the two sinusoidal sidebands, is the signal produced when a carrier is modulated
by a single-tone sine wave information signal. The carrier is suppressed, and the time-domain DSB signal is
a sine wave at the carrier frequency, varying in amplitude as shown in Fig. 9.
Carrier frequency sine wave
Note phase transition

Time

Fig. 9: A time-domain display of a DSB AM signal.

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A frequency-domain display of a DSB signal is given in Fig. 10. The spectrum space occupied by a DSB
signal is the same as that for a conventional AM signal. Double-sideband suppressed carrier signals are
generated by a circuit called a balanced modulator.
In communication system DSB is not widely used because the signal is difficult to demodulate (recover)
at the receiver. However, DSB is used for the transmission of the color information in a TV signal.
Suppressed
carrier

Sideband Sideband

fc fm fc fc fm

Frequency

Fig. 10: A frequency-domain display of DSB signal.

SSB Signals
In DSB transmission, the information is contained in both sidebands. It is not required to transmit both
sidebands in order to convey the information. One sideband can be suppressed; the remaining sideband is
called a single- sideband suppressed carrier (SSSC or SSB) signal. The following are the advantages of SSB
signals
1. SSB signal occupies the only one-half that of AM and DSB signals spectrum space.

2. The carrier and the other sideband signal power is saved. SSB transmitters can be made smaller and
lighter

3. Because SSB signals occupy a narrower bandwidth, the amount of noise in the signal is reduced.

4. There is less selective fading of an SSB signal over long distances. The carrier and sidebands may arrive
at the receiver at slightly different times, causing a phase shift that can, in turn, cause them to add in
such a way as to cancel one another rather than add up to the original AM signal.

Signal Power Considerations

• In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in terms of peak envelope power (PEP), the maximum
power produced on voice amplitude peaks.

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• PEP is computed by the equation

Consider a voice signal produces a 360 V, peak-to-peak signal across a 50Ω load. The rms voltage is
0.707 times the peak value, and the peak value is one-half the peak-to-peak voltage. The rms voltage is

The peak envelope power is then

Also

PEP = VsImax

where Vs amplifier supply voltage and Imax 5 current peak

For example, a 450 V supply with a peak current of 0.8 A produces a PEP of

PEP = 450(0.8) = 360W.

An SSB transmitter produces a peak-to-peak voltage of 178 V across a 75Ω antenna load. What is the
PEP?

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Q GATE 2021 Consider a carrier signal which is Q4 To achieve 75 percent modulation of a carrier
amplitude modulated by a single tone sinusoidal of Vc = 50 V, what amplitude of the modulating
message signal with a modulation index 50% . If signal Vm is needed?
the carrier and one of the sidebands are Solution: m=0.5
suppressed in the modulated signal, the
percentage of power saved (rounded off to one
decimal place is.
)
Solution:
Q5 The maximum peak-to-peak value of an AM
The Total AM power is wave is 45 V. The peak-to-peak value of the
modulating signal is 20 V. What is the percentage
of modulation?
Solution:
Let the carrier and one of the sideband power is P1
Vm = 20V Vmax = 45 V

The percentage of power saved is

%m = 80

Q7 An AM radio transmitter operating on 3.9

MHz is modulated by frequencies up to 4 kHz.
What are the maximum upper and lower side
frequencies? What is the total bandwidth of the
%Power saved = 94.444
AM signal?
Q2 An AM wave displayed on an oscilloscope has Solution:
values of Vmax = 4.8 and Vmin = 2.5 as read from the
fc = 3.9 × 106Hz fm = 4 × 103Hz
graticule. What is the percentage of modulation?
Solution:
USB = fc + fm = 3.9 × 106 + 4 × 103 = 3.904 MHz

LSB = fc + fm = 3.9 × 106 − 4 × 103 = 3.896 MHz

BW = USB − LSB = 3.904 MHz − 3.896 MHz
= 8 KHz

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Q9 How much power appears in one sideband of Q12 An AM transmitter puts a carrier of 6 A into
an AM signal of a 5 kW transmitter modulated by an antenna whose resistance is 52 Ω. The
80 percent? transmitter is modulated by 60 percent. What is
Solution: the total output power?
Solution:
PT = 5kW m = 0.8
IC = 6 A R = 52Ω m = 0.6
The power in one sideband of AM is
The Total power of an AM is

Q10 What is the total power supplied by an AM

transmitter with a carrier power of 2500 W and
modulation of 77 percent?
Solution:
PC = 2500W m = 0.77 PT = IT2 × R = (6.517)2 × 52 = 2208.5 W

The Total power of an AM is

Q14 A ham transmitter has a carrier power of 750
W. How much power is added to the signal when
the transmitter is 100 percent modulated?
Solution:

PC = 750 W
Q11 An AM signal has a 12-W carrier and 1.5 W in
each sideband. What is the percentage of
modulation?
Solution:

PC = 12W PUSB = PLSB = 1.5

PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB = 12 + 1.5 + 1.5

= 15 W Q16 The peak-to-peak output voltage of 675 V
appears across a 52 Ω antenna on voice peaks in
an SSB transmitter. What is the output PEP?
Solution:

VP−P = 675 V R = 52Ω

%m = 0.707 × 100 = 70.7

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fLSB = fC − fm = 2.3 × 106 − 150 = 2.299850 MHz fUSB = fC

+ fm = 2.3 × 106 + 150 = 2.300150 MHz

When 4.2 kHz

Q18 An SSB transmitter with a carrier of 2.3 MHz
is modulated by an intelligence signal in the 150
fLSB = fC − fm = 2.3 × 106 − 4.2 × 103
Hz to 4.2 kHz range. Calculate the frequency
range of the lower sideband. = 2.295800 MHz fUSB = fC − fm = 2.3 ×
Solution: 106 + 4.2 × 103
fC = 2.3MHz fm150Hz to 4.2 kHz = 2.304200 MHz
When fm150Hz

2.295800 MHz 2.304200 MHz

The amplitude of a sinusoidal carrier is

150 Hz 150 Hz modulated by a single sinusoid to obtain the
amplitude modulated signal S(t) =

4.2 =2.3MHz c 4.2

c c

Amplitude Modulator and Demodulator

Circuits
2.5 Basic Principles of Amplitude Modulation
The AM equation is

vAM = Vcsin2πfct + (Vmsin2πfmt)sin2πfct

The first term is the carrier wave and second term is the product of the sine wave carrier and modulating
signals.

or

Vm = mVc

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vAM = Vcsin2πfct + (mVcsin2πfmt)sin2πfct

= Vcsin2πfct(1 + mVmsin2πfmt)

AM

πf t

c πf c t

Fig. 1: AM modulator

2.6 AM in the Frequency Domain (square-law modulator)

AM signal is generated using square-law circuit. In this circuit the carrier and modulating signal are applied
to a nonlinear component or circuit. A nonlinear circuit is one in which the current is not directly
proportional to the voltage. A common nonlinear component is a diode that has the nonlinear parabolic
response. The current variation in a typical semiconductor diode can be approximated by the equation:

i = av + bv2

where av is a linear component of the current equal to the applied voltage multiplied by the coefficient a and
bv2 2 is second-order or square-law component of the current.

The circuit diagram of a square-law circuit using diode is as shown in Fig. 3. In this circuit the carrier and
modulating sources are in series and are applied to the diode circuit. The voltage applied to the diode is then

v = vc + vm
The diode current in the resistor is

i = a(vc + vm) + b(vc + vm)2

= a(vc + vm) + b(vc2 + 2vcvm + vm2 )
The carrier and modulating signals are
vc = vcsinωct
vm = vmsinωmt

Using trigonometric identity

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The first term is the carrier sine wave

The second term is the modulating signal sine wave. The third term cos2ωctis a sine wave at two times the
frequency of the carrier.
The fourth term is the product of the carrier and modulating signal sine waves, defines the AM wave. The
fifth term consists of cos2ωmt is the second harmonic of the modulating sine wave.
Diode
V0 iRL

Vc Carrier fc
RL
Load

Vm Modulating
signal fm

Fig. 2: A square-law circuit

Modulating
signal and AM wave
harmonic

fm 2fm fc fm fc fc fm 2fc 3 fc

Harmonics

Fig. 3: Output spectrum

2.7 Amplitude Modulators

There are two types of Amplitude modulators which are

• Low-level modulators: Low-level modulators generate AM with small signals

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• High-level modulators:High-level modulators produce AM at high power levels, usually in the final
amplifier stage of a transmitter.

2.7.1 Low-Level AM
Diode Modulator
Diode Modulator is the one of the simplest amplitude modulators. The circuit diagram of an low level AM is
shown in Fig. 4. The circuit consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode rectifier, and an LC tuned circuit.
The carrier is applied to the resistor R2 and the modulating signal to the resistor R1. The mixed signals appear
across R3. This network causes the two signals to be linearly mixed, i.e., algebraically added. If both the
carrier and the modulating signal are sine waves, the waveform resulting at the junction of the two resistors
will be like that shown in Fig. 4-8(c), where the carrier wave is riding on the modulating signal. This signal
is not AM. Modulation is a multiplication process, not an addition process. The composite waveform is
applied to a diode rectifier. The diode acts as a half wave rectifier. During the positive-going half-cycle it is
forward-biased and during the negative portions of the wave, the diode is in cut off state and no signal passes.
R1
Fig. 4-8(a)
Modulating
signal
Fig. 4-8(c) Fig. 4-8(d )
R2 D1
Fig. 4-8(b)
Carrier AM
output
Fig. 4-8(e)
R3 C L

Fig. 4: Diode modulator

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d )

(e)

Fig. 5: Waveforms in the diode modulator

These positive going pulses are applied to the parallel tuned circuit made up of L and C, which are
resonant at the carrier frequency. Each time the diode conducts, a pulse of current flows through the tuned
circuit. The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an oscillation, or ”ringing,” at the
resonant frequency. The oscillation of the tuned circuit creates one negative half cycle for every positive
input pulse. High amplitude positive pulses cause the tuned circuit to produce high- amplitude negative
pulses. Low-amplitude positive pulses produce corresponding low-amplitude negative pulses. The resulting
waveform across the tuned circuit is an AM signal. The Q of the tuned circuit should be high enough to
eliminate the harmonics and produce a clean sine wave and to filter out the modulating signal, and low
enough that its bandwidth accommodates the sidebands generated.

Transistor Modulator
In transistor based modulator, in place of diode it uses a transistor. The emitter base junction is a diode and
a nonlinear device. Modulation occurs as described previously, except that the base current controls a larger
collector current, and therefore the circuit amplifies. Rectification occurs because of the emitter base
junction. This causes larger half sine pulses of current in the tuned circuit. The tuned circuit oscillates (rings)
to generate the missing half cycle. The output is a classic AM wave.

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VCC

Carrier AM

Modulating
signal

Fig. 6: Transistor modulator

Amplifying Low Level AM Signals.
The low-level modulator circuits usually generates the power in milliwatts. For transmitting such low-level
signal the AM signal is applied to one or more linear amplifiers, which is as shown in Fig. 7. These amplifier
circuits usually made up of class A, class AB, circuits and this AM signal is fed to the antenna.
Antenna
Linear power amplifiers

Carrier
oscillator Amplitude AM signal
modulator

Final RF
power amplifier

Audio
amplifier

Voice
modulating
signal
Microphone

Fig. 7: AM Transmitter

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2.7.2 High Level AM

In high-level AM, the modulator produces high power in the final RF amplifier stage of the transmitter. The
output stage of the transmitter is a high power class C amplifier. Class C amplifiers conduct for only a portion
of the positive half cycle of it’s input signal. Class C amplifiers conduct for only a portion of the positive half
cycle of their input signal. The circuit diagram of an Class C amplifier as shown in Fig. 8

Fig. 8: Class C amplifier (https://ece.poriyaan.in/)

The simple high level modulator circuit using transistor based collector modulator is as shown in Fig. 10.
The collector current pulses cause the tuned circuit to oscillate at the desired output frequency. The tuned
circuit, reproduces the negative portion of the carrier signal applied to the collector is twice the collector
supply voltage. When the modulating signal goes negative, it subtracts from the collector supply voltage.
When the negative peak is equal to the supply voltage, the effective voltage applied to the collector of Q1 is
zero, producing zero carrier output.

Fig. 9: High level collector modulator [?]

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The modulating output signal is coupled through transformer T1 to the class C amplifier. The secondary
winding of the modulation transformer is connected in series with the collector supply voltage VCC of the
class C amplifier. If modulating signal is zero then voltage across the secondary of T1 is zero. The class C
amplifier output carrier is a steady sine wave.
When the modulating signal occurs, the ac voltage of the modulating signal across the secondary of the
modulation transformer is added to and subtracted from the DC collector supply voltage. This varying supply
voltage is then applied to the class C amplifier, causing the amplitude of the current pulses through transistor
Q1 to vary. During the positive cycle of the carrier signal the base emitter junction of
the transistor is forward biased then transistor start conducting and during the negative cycle it is reverse
biased and transistor is switched off then the collector current becomes zero. The tuned circuit, reproduces
the negative portion of the carrier signal applied to the collector is twice the collector supply voltage. As a
result, the amplitude of the carrier sine wave varies in accordance with the modulated signal.

Fig. 10: Waveforms of the high-level amplitude modulator

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2.8 Amplitude Demodulators

Amplitude Demodulators circuits accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating
information.

2.8.1 Diode Detectors

The simplest amplitude demodulator is the diode demodulator circuit which is as shown in Fig. 11. It
consists of transformer, diode D1 R1 and capacitor C1. The AM signal is connected to the diode through
transformer. The diode conducts when the positive half-cycles of the AM signals occur. During the negative
half-cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. A capacitor C1 is connected across
resistor R1, effectively filtering out the carrier and thus recovering the original modulating signal.
The received AM signal is as shown in Fig. 12. On each positive alternation of the AM signal, the
capacitor charges quickly to the peak value of the pulses passed by the diode. When the pulse voltage
drops to zero, the capacitor discharges into resistor R1. The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a
close approximation to the original modulating signal.
The diode detector recovers the envelope of the AM signal, which is the original modulating signal, the
circuit is sometimes referred to as an envelope detector. The dc component in the output is removed with
a series coupling or blocking capacitor,C2.
D1 C2 Original
AM signal information
or modulating
signal
R1 C1

Fig. 11: Diode Detectors

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Unmodulated Modulated
carrier carrier

AM signal

Carrier
frequency

Envelope produced by
charging and discharging C1

Rectified
AM

Recovered
modulating
signal DC component
after
filtering

0V

Fig. 12: Diode detector waveforms.

The components of the AM signal are the carrier fc , the upper sideband fc + fm, and the lower sideband
fc − fm. The diode detector circuit combines these signals, creating the sum and difference signals.

fc + (fc + fm) = 2fc + fm

fc − (fc + fm) = −fm
fc + (fc − fm) = 2fc − fm
fc − (fc − fm) = fm
These components appear in the output. Since the carrier frequency is very much higher than that of the
modulating signal, the carrier signal can easily be filtered out with a simple low-pass filter. In a diode

detector, this low-pass filter is just capacitor C1 across load resistor R1. Removing the carrier leaves only
the original modulating signal. The frequency spectrum of a diode detector is as shown in Fig.13.
Low-pass filter (C1) response allows only
the modulating

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fm fc fm fc fc fm 2fc
signal f to pass
(LSB) Carrier (USB)

Fig. 13: Output spectrum

2.9 Balanced Modulators

A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving only the
sum and difference frequencies at the output. The output of a balanced modulator is further processed by
filters or phase-shifting circuitry to eliminate one of the sidebands, resulting in an SSB signal.

2.9.1 Lattice Modulators

The lattice (diode ring) type balanced modulator is as shown in Fig. 14. It consist of an input transformer
T1, an output transformer T2, and four diodes connected in the form of a bridge circuit. The carrier signal
is applied to the center taps of the input and output transformers, and the modulating signal is applied to
the primary of the input transformer T1. The output appears across the secondary of the output
transformer T2. The redrawn circuit is as shown in Fig. 15
The carrier sine wave, is usually considerably higher in frequency and amplitude than the modulating
signal, is used as a source of forward and reverse bias for the diodes. The carrier turns the diodes off and
on at a high rate of speed, and the diodes act as switches that connect the modulating signal at the
secondary of T1 to the primary of T2.

Fig. 14: Lattice modulator Ref: Louis E.

Frenzel Jr. Fig. 15: Lattice modulator

Principles of Communication Systems – BEC 402

Dr. Nataraj Vijapur
 RV Institute of Technology and Management®

The detailed lattice modulator operation is as shown in Fig.16 and Fig.17. When
message signal is absent

• When carrier signal is positive current will divide equally in the upper and lower part of transformer
T1 Diodes D1 and D2 Conducts and when arrives at the transformer T2, both currents are in opposite
directions hence carrier current is going to cancel at the primary of T2.
• When carrier signal is negative current will divide equally in the upper and lower part of transformer
T1 Diodes D3 and D4 Conducts and when arrives at the transformer T2, both currents are in opposite
directions hence carrier current is going to cancel at the primary of T2.

Fig. 16: Carrier is Positive D1, D2 Conducts Fig. 17: Carrier is Negative D3, D4 Conducts

Following are the possibilities when the modulating signal is applied to the primary of T1.

1. Both the message vm(t) and carrier signal vc(t) Positive

2. Message signal vm(t) is Positive and carrier signal vc(t) Negative

3. Both the message vm(t) and carrier signal vc(t) Negative

4. Message signal vm(t) Negative and carrier signal vc(t) Positive

Sl No v m(t) v c(t) Diodes Output
1 Positive Positive D1 and D2 Conducts Positive
2 Positive Negative D3 and D4 Conducts Negative
3 Negative Positive D1 and D2 Conducts Negative
4 Negative Negative D3 and D4 Conducts Positive
Now assume that a low-frequency sine wave is applied to the primary of T1 as the modulating signal.
The modulating signal appears across the secondary of T1. The diode switches connect the secondary of T1
to the primary of T2 at different times depending upon the carrier polarity. When the carrier polarity is
positive only diodes D1 and D2 conduct and act as closed switches. The modulating signal at the secondary
of T1 is applied to the primary of T2 through D1 and D2. When the carrier polarity reverses, D1 and D2 cut off
and D3 and D4 conduct. Again,the modulating signal at the secondary of T1 is applied to the primary of T2 ,
but this time the leads have been effectively reversed because of the connections of D3 and D4. The result

Principles of Communication Systems – BEC 402

Dr. Nataraj Vijapur
 RV Institute of Technology and Management®

is a 180◦ phase reversal. For a negative cycle of a carrier and if the modulating signal is positive, the output
will be negative, and vice versa. The DSB signal appearing across the primary of T2 is as shown in Fig. c.

Fig. 18: Waveforms in the lattice-type balanced modulator. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) DSB
signalprimary T2. (d) DSB output.

2.10 Frequency Division Multiplexing

In frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), multiple signals share the bandwidth of a common
communication channel. A coaxial cable, e.g., has a bandwidth of about 1 GHz. The bandwidths of radio
channels vary, and are usually determined by FCC regulations and the type of radio service involved.
Regardless of the type of channel, a wide bandwidth can be shared for the purpose of transmitting many
signals at the same time.

Principles of Communication Systems – BEC 402

Dr. Nataraj Vijapur
 RV Institute of Technology and Management®

2.10.1 Transmitter Multiplexers

The general block diagram of an FDM system is as shown in Fig.. Each message signal is fed to the
modulator circuit and each modulator (fc) uses different carrier frequency (fci). The carrier frequencies are
usually equally spaced from one another over a specific frequency range. These carriers are referred to as
subcarriers. The spectrum of an FDM signal is shown in Fig.. Each modulators may use AM, SSB, FM, PM,
or any of the various digital modulation methods. In FDM process the bandwidth is divided into single,
smaller, equally spaced channels.

Fig. 19: FDM transmitter

0.7. Frequency Division Multiplexing

Fig. 20: FDM transmitter waveform

Receiver-Demultiplexers
The FDM receiver system is shown in shown in Fig.. A receiver picks up the signal and demodulates it,
recovering the composite signal. This is sent to a group of bandpass filters, each centered on one of the
carrier frequencies. Each filter passes only its channel and rejects all others. A channel demodulator then
recovers each original input signal.

Principles of Communication Systems – BEC 402

Dr. Nataraj Vijapur
 RV Institute of Technology and Management®

Fig. 21: FDM receiver system.

Principles of Communication Systems – BEC 402

Dr. Nataraj Vijapur