105BS -

Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1

105BS - Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

Department of Mathematics
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
Vallabh Vidyanagar
 105BS -
List of References Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
1. AICTE’s Prescribed Textbook: Mathematics-II (Calculus, Ordinary
List of References
Differential Equations and Complex Variable), Reena Garg, Khanna
Topics - Module 1
Book Publishing Co., 2023.
2. Reena Garg, Engineering Mathematics, Khanna Book Publishing
Company, 2022.
3. Reena Garg, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Khanna Book
Publishing Company, 2021.
4. Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, 2006.
5. Veerarajan T., Engineering Mathematics for first year, Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2008.
6. W.E. Boyce and R.C. DiPrima, Elementary Differential Equatons and
Boundary Value Problems, 9th Edition, Wiley India, 2009.
7. D. Poole, Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction, 2nd Edition,
Brooks/Cole, 2005.
8. S.L. Ross, Differential Equations, 3rd Edition, Wiley India, 1984.
 105BS -
List of References Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1

9. E.A. Coddington, An Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations,

Prentice Hall India, 1995.

10. E.L. Ince, Ordinary Differential Equations, Dover Publications, 1958.

11. J.W. Brown and R.V. Churchill, Complex Variables and Applications,
7th Edition, Mc-Graw Hill, 2004.

12. N.P. Bali and Manish Goyal, A text book of Engineering Mathematics,
Laxmi Publications, Reprint, 2008.

13. Recommended: Grewal B.S., Higher Engineering Mathematics, Khanna

Publisher, New Delhi, 36th Edition, 2010.
 105BS -
Module 1: Matrices (10 hours) Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

1. Linear Systems of Equations Topics - Module 1

2. Rank of a Matrix: Using determinant, using REF, using

RREF and using Normal form
3. Determinant, Inverse of a matrix using elementary
transformations
4. The Rank-Nullity theorem
5. Symmetric, Skew-Symmetric and Orthogonal matrices
6. Eigenvalues and Eigenvector
7. Orthogonal transformation
8. Diagonalization of matrices
9. Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References
Matrix:
Topics - Module 1

A matrix is a rectangular arrangements of numbers. The

numbers in the arrangement are called the entries in the
matrix.
The entries written horizontally are said to form a row
The entries written vertically are said to form a column.
If there are m−rows and n−columns, we say that it is an
(m × n)-matrix and we write them within square brackets or
round brackets using normally capital english alphabet, like,
A, B, C etc.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
For example,
List of References
 
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n Topics - Module 1
 a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n 
A= .  = [aij ]m×n
 
.. .. .. ..
 .. . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn

where i = 1, 2, . . . m and j = 1, 2, . . . n.
Matrix A written above is an (m × n)-matrix.
In a matrix the rows are labeled from top to bottom as
R1 , R2 . . . . Rm .
The columns are labeled from left to right as C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn .
The entry aij is the entry common to i th -row and j th -column.
Types of matrices 105BS -
Mathematics II
? Zero Matrix: R.B.Gandhi

A matrix with all its entries zero is called a zero-matrix. List of References

Topics - Module 1
? Row and Column Matrices:
A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix, say
for example,
 
A = a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n = [a1j ]1×n

where j = 1, 2, . . . n.
A matrix with only on column is called a column matrix.
 
a11
 a21 
A =  .  = [ai1 ]m×1
 
 .. 
am1

where i = 1, 2, . . . m
? Square matrix: 105BS -
Mathematics II
A matrix with equal number of rows and columns is R.B.Gandhi
called a square matrix. For example,
  List of References
a11 a12 · · · a1n Topics - Module 1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
A= . ..  = [aij ]n×n
 
.. ..
 .. . . . 
am1 am2 · · · ann
where i = 1, 2, . . . n and j = 1, 2, . . . n.
The above mentioned matrix is a square matrix of order
n.
The entries a11 , a22 , . . . ann or aii where i = 1, 2, . . . , n
are called the diagonal entries in a square matrix of
order n.
The entries aij ’s where i 6= j are called the off-diagonal
entries in a square matrix of order n, out of which the
entries aij ’s where i < j represent the above diagonal
entries and the entries aij ’s where i > j represent the
below diagonal entries.
 105BS -
Mathematics II
? Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which aij = 0 for
R.B.Gandhi
all i 6= j, means all the off-diagonal entries are zero and
at least one non-zero diagonal entry, is called a diagonal List of References

Topics - Module 1
matrix.
? Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the
diagonal entries are same, means aii = k and k 6= 0, is
called a scalar matrix.
? Unit Matrix: A scalar matrix in which diagonal entries
are 1, is called a unit or identity matrix.
? Triangular Matrices
Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix in which all
the entries below diagonal are zero, that is, aij = 0 for
i > j is called an upper triangular matrix
Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix in which all
the entries above diagonal are zero, that is, aij = 0 for
i < j is called a lower triangular matrix
 105BS -
Mathematics II
Transpose of a Matrix: For a matrix A = [aij ]m×n , the R.B.Gandhi
matrix [aji ]n×m is called transpose of matrix A and it is
0 List of References
denoted by AT or A
Topics - Module 1
? Matrix Addition:
Let A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bij ]m×n be given matrices
then their addition is denoted by A + B and if the result
is matrix C , then

C = A + B = [aij + bij ]m×n

? Multiplication of a matrix by scalars

Let A = [aij ]m×n be given matrix and k be a non-zero
scalar, then the multiplication of A by scalar k is
denoted by kA and if the result is matrix C , then

C = kA = [kaij ]m×n
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
? Matrix Multiplication
Let A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bjk ]n×p be given matrices List of References

then the multiplication of A by B from right side is Topics - Module 1

denoted by AB and if the result is matrix C , then

C = AB = [cik ]m×p ,

where
 
b1k
   b2k 
cik = ai1 ai2 · · · ain ×
 
.. 
 . 
bnk
= ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + · · · + ain bnk ;

for i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n and k = 1, 2, . . . , p .
 105BS -
Mathematics II

Examples: R.B.Gandhi

For List of References

Topics - Module 1
   
2 −1 1 1 1 1 3 2
 0 −2 3 2   5 2 −3 1 
 3 2 −2 4  ;
A=  B=
 3 −2 1 4  ;


5 1 0 −3 3 0 1 3
 
  1 2
1 6 2
C= ; D =  5 1 ,
9 −3 4
3 4
find

2A + 3B, 5C , C − D, AB, CD, DC , AC , C2

and verify (A + B)T = AT + B T and (AB)T = B T AT .

? Rank of a matrix: 105BS -
Mathematics II

Let   R.B.Gandhi

a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n List of References


 a21 a22 a23 ··· a2n 
 Topics - Module 1

A=
 a31 a32 a33 ··· a3n 

 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn
be a given m × n matrix.
By a minor of order r of matrix A, we mean a
determinant of an r × r matrix, formed by choosing
r -rows from A and then choosing r -columns from the
rows or vice versa.
Definition: Rank - A non-zero matrix A is said to have
rank r , if it has a non-zero minor of order r and all the
minor with order higher than r are zero.
The rank of a zero matrix is defined as 0.
Note: The rank of an m × n matrix cannot be higher
than min{m, n}.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

Find rank of the following matrices (by definition): List of References

  Topics - Module 1
    0 2
1 2 1 2 2
A= B= C = 2 1 
3 6 3 6 1
1 4
   
1 2 1 1 2 2
D= 3 6 3  E = 3 2 2 
−1 2 2 −1 2 2
 
  −2 2 2 1
0 2 2 1  2 2 3 2 
F = 2 1 1 2  G =
 0 4 5 3


1 4 2 1
1 2 2 −1
? Elementary transformations: 105BS -
Mathematics II

Elementary row-transformations: R.B.Gandhi

For a given matrix, the following operations on its rows List of References

are considered elementary operations: Topics - Module 1

1 To interchange two rows.

Notation: Rij and it means to write entries of row i in
their corresponding places in row j and vice versa.
2 To multiply a row by a constant.
Notation: kRi and it means to multiply every entry in
row Ri by constant k.
3 To multiply a row by a constant and add it to another
row.
Notation: Rij (k) or Ri ← Ri + kRj and it means to
multiply entries in j th row by k and add it to the
corresponding entries in the i th row. Entries in the i th
row will change.
Similarly operations on columns denoted by Cij , kCi and
Ci ← Ci + kCj are called elementary column
transformations and they carry the same meaning as
above with the word ”row” replaced by ”column”.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1
Any matrix which reduces to an identity matrix by operating
any of the elementary transformations on it only once, is
called an elementary matrix.
Note: Importance of elementary matrix is that when it is
multiplied from left to the given matrix, one can see the
same transformation visible on the rows of the given matrix
and when multiplied from right, one can see the same
transformation visible on the columns of the given matrix.
 105BS -
Mathematics II
Row-echelon form matrix: R.B.Gandhi

A matrix is said to be a row-echelon form matrix (REF), List of References

Topics - Module 1
1. if a row does not consists entirely of zeros, then the first
non-zero number in the row is a 1. We call this a
leading 1.
2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then
they are grouped together at the bottom of the matrix.
3. In any two consecutive rows that do not consist entirely
of zeros, the leading 1 in the lower row occurs farther to
the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
Reduced Row-echelon form matrix:
A matrix is said to be a reduced row-echelon form matrix
(RREF), if it is a row-echelon form matrix and each column
that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else in that
column.
For example: 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
 
1 −4 0 2

 0 0 2 5  List of References

A=
 0 0 0 1  is REF but not RREF Topics - Module 1

 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0

While in the following

   
1 0 5 0 1 0 0 0
 0 3 2 0   0 3 2 0 
B=  C = ;
 0 0 0 1   0 2 0 −1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0

matrix B is both REF and RREF and matrix C is neither

REF nor RREF.
Note: By definition of RREF matrix, it is always REF matrix.
Observation: For an REF matrix, its rank is equal to the
number of non-zero rows.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

Result: A matrix obtained by operating elemenrary row R.B.Gandhi

tranformation is equivalent to the given matrix in the sense List of References

that they have the same rank. Topics - Module 1

Alternate way to find rank of a matrix - a procedure: Reduce

the given matrix to REF matrix applying elementary row
transformations on it and by the above result, the rank of
the matrix will be same as the rank of the obtained REF
matrix, which the number of non-zero rows in REF matrix.
Example: Find rank of the following matrices:
   
2 3 5 1 2 −3 −5
 2 1 2 0   5 1 2
  
 ;
 1 2 −2 −1   −3 1 −1 
3 −1 5 2 −4 −2 0
 105BS -
Rank and Nullity of a matrix Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1
The dimension of row space of A and column space of A are
always same and it is called rank of matrix A and it is
denoted by rank(A).
The dimension of the nullspace of A is called the nullity of A
and is denoted by nullity(A).

Dimension Theorem for Matrices or The Rank-Nullity

Theorem:
If A is a matrix with n columns, then

rank(A) + nullity (A) = n.

 105BS -
? Determinants: Here we will see the procedure to find Mathematics II

determinant of a square matrix. This procedure is R.B.Gandhi

useful when dimention of the square matrix is big. List of References

Evaluating Determinants by Row Reduction: Topics - Module 1

[i] Let us denote determinant of the given square matrix

A by say, D. Thus, D = det(A) or D = |A|
[ii] Apply elementary row transformation to reduce A, in
its determinant form, to REF.
If Rij is applied then on LHS the value of determinant
will be opposite.
If kRi is applied, we have the values on LHS of
determinant will become k-times.
If Ri ← Ri + kRj is applied, then the value of
determinant will be unchanged.
[iii] When the matrix is transformed to REF matrix and
suppose on LHS we have mD, then
mD = product of the diagonal entries of REF matrix.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
A method of finding Inverse of a matrix - reducing to REF:
List of References

Let A be an invertible matrix of order n. To find inverse of Topics - Module 1

it, here is a procedure described.

1. Let us form an augemented matrix [A : In ], where In is
the nth -order identity matrix.
2. Apply elementary row transformations on this
augmented matrix to reduce A to the nth -order identity
matrix. When A is transformed to the identity matrix,
In will transform to inverse matrix of A, that is, A−1 .
The procedure is even stronger that in case of singular
matrix, say A, the transformation process will not be able to
reduce A to In . Hence helping to determine that A is not
invertible.
 105BS -
Examples & Assignment Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1

Find determinant and inverse of the following matrix by

row-reduction method:
 
  2 1 3 1
3 −6 9  1 0 1 1 
A =  −2 7 −2  B =   0 2
;
1 0 
0 1 5
0 1 2 3
 105BS -
Mathematics II
? Linear system of equations: R.B.Gandhi

A system of equations of the form List of References

Topics - Module 1
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm

is known as a system of m-linear equations in

n-unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn .
By a solution to this system of equations, we mean the
values of x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn which satify every equation in
the system.
If the system has a solution, it is called a consistent
system, otherwise it is called an inconsistent system.
 105BS -
? A linear system of equations Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1
List of References
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
Topics - Module 1
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm

can be written in matrix form as

    
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22
 a23 · · · a2n 
 x2  
  b2 

 a31 a32
 a33 · · · a3n 
 x3 =
  b3 ;

 .. .. .. .. ..   ..   .. 
 . . . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn xn bm

OR
AX = B;
where
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
 
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n List of References

 a21 a22 a23 ··· a2n 
 Topics - Module 1

A=
 a31 a32 a33 ··· a3n 

 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn
is called the matrix of co-efficients,
 
x1
 x2 
 
X =  x3 
 
 .. 
 . 
xn

is called the matrix of unknowns, and

   105BS -
Mathematics II
b1
R.B.Gandhi

 b2 

B=
 b3 
 List of References
 ..  Topics - Module 1
 . 
bm
is called the matrix of constant terms.
In the case, when B = 0, the system is called homongeneous
system. Otherwise it is called non-homongeneous system.
The matrix denoted by [A : B] is the matrix of the form
 
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n | b1
 a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n | b2 
 
[A : B] =  a31 a32 a33 · · · a3n | b3  ;
 
 .. .. .. .. .. . 
 . . . . . | .. 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn | bm

known as the augmented matrix [A:B].

Gauss elimination method 105BS -
Mathematics II
1. Suppose that we are given a system of m-linear R.B.Gandhi
equations in n-unknowns
List of References

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 Topics - Module 1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm
as discussed earlier, We can write it in matrix form as
    
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
    
 a31 a32 a33 · · · a3n   x3   b3
= ;

 
 .. .. .. .. ..   ..   .. 
 . . . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn xn bm
OR
AX = B.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

Gauss elimination method ... R.B.Gandhi

2. Form the augmented matrix [A : B] and reduce it to List of References

REF matrix, say [E : F ]. Thus, [A : B] ∼ [E : F ]. Topics - Module 1

You can see that once [A : B] is reduced to REF matrix

[E : F ], neglecting the last column, we get A also
reduced to REF matrix E .
3. If rank[A : B] = rank A, we can deduce that the system
is consistent, means the system has a solution.
In addition, if rank[A : B] = rank A = n, where n is the
number of unknowns, then the system has a unique
solution.
To find this unique solution, we write the matrix [E : F ]
in equation form and solve using back substitution.
This procedure is known as Gauss elimination method.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
Gauss elimination method ...
List of References
4. If rank[A : B] = rank A 6= n, where n is the number of
Topics - Module 1
unknowns, then the system has infinite number of
solutions.
To find these solutions, we write the matrix [E : F ] in
equation form and solve using back substitution. But
for this you need to take values of (n − r )-unknowns
arbitrarily, where r = rank A.
5. If rank[A : B] 6= rank A, then the system is declared
inconsistent, means it has no solution.
Note: If the system is homogeneous, that is AX = 0, it is
always consistent, as X = 0 is its trivial solution.
In the case, when it has infinite number of solutions, we do
say that it has a non-zero solution or a non-trivial solution.
 105BS -
Examples & Assignment Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
Solve each of the following systems by Gauss elimination
List of References
method:
Topics - Module 1

(1) x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 8 (2) 2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0

−x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 1 −2x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 = 1
3x1 − 7x2 + 4x3 = 10 8x1 + x2 + 4x3 = −1

(3) x − y + 2z − w = −1 (4) −2b + 3c = 1

2x + y − 2z − 2w = −2 3a + 6b − 3c = −2
−x + 2y − 4z + w = 1 6a + 6b + 3c = 5
3x − 3w = −3

(5) w + 2x − y = 4 (6) 2x + 2y + 4z =0
x −y =3 w − y − 3z =0
w + 3x − 2y =7 2w + 3x + y + z =0
2u + 4v + w + 7x =7 −2w + x + 3y − 2z =0
 105BS -
Types of matrices ... Continued Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
? Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices: For a matrix
A, if AT = A, then it is called a symmetric matrix and List of References

if AT = −A, then it is called a skew-symmetric matrix. Topics - Module 1

? Singular matrix: A matrix for which its determinant is 0

is called a singular matrix. A square matrix which is not
singular is called regular or invertible matrix.
? Adjoint of a matrix: For a given square matrix A = [aij ]
of order n, the co-factor of the entry aij is denoted by
Aij and it is the (n − 1)-ordered square matrix formed
from the matrix A by neglecting the row and the
column to which aij is the common entry in the same
order. Then the adjoint of matrix A is denoted by
Adj(A) and is defined as

Adj(A) = [Aij ]T
 105BS -
? Inverse of a square matrix: For a given regular square Mathematics II
matrix A, its inverse, denoted by A−1 is obtained by R.B.Gandhi

using, List of References

1
A−1 = Adj(A). Topics - Module 1
|A|

? Orthogonal Matrix: A regular square matrix A is called

orthogonal matrix, if

A−1 = AT .

Example:
For any θ ∈ R,
 
cos θ sin θ
A=
− sin θ cos θ

is an orthogonal matrix.
? Complex matrices - Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian
matrices
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References
Eigenvalues & eigenvectors: Topics - Module 1

Let A be a given square matrix of order n. For a number λ,

~ = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]T
if there exists a non-zero vector X
satisfying the equation
~ = λX
AX ~,

~ is
then λ is called an eigenvalue of the matrix A and X
called an eigenvector of the matrix A corresponding to the
eigen value λ.
Here, In is the identity matrix of order n.
 105BS -
Mathematics II
Observe that R.B.Gandhi

~ = λX
AX ~ =⇒ AX~ = λIn X
~ List of References

Topics - Module 1
=⇒ AX~ − λIn X
~ =0
=⇒ ~ = 0.
(A − λIn )X

Here, In is the identity matrix of order n.

From the last equation, we can see that it forms a
homogeneous system of equations and for λ to be an
~ has to be non-zero, implies that homogenous
eigenvalue, X
system has a non-zero solution, implies rank of the square
matrix A − λIn of order n has to be less than n and this
implies
det(A − λIn ) = 0.
This equation is called the Characteristic equation of the
matrix A.
Thus, in order to find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors 105BS -
Mathematics II
of a given square matrix A of order n,
R.B.Gandhi
1. Form the characteristic matrix (A − λIn ) of A by
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subtracting λ from the diagonal entries of A
Topics - Module 1
2. Solve the characteristic equation det(A − λIn ) = 0 of A,
which is a degree n polynomial equation in λ and hence
n−values of λ can be obtained, say, λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn .
These values may be distinct or repeat & real or
complex.
3. For each λ, solve the homogeneous system of equations
~ = 0,
(A − λIn )X
~ . This solution X
for a non-zero solution X ~ is an
eigenvector corresponding to the chosen eigenvalue λ.
Note: For a square matrix A of order n, if λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are
its eigenvalues, then
λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λn = trace of A.
The trace of a square matrix A is the sum of its diagonal
entries.
 105BS -
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
matrices:
 2    List of References

3 0 0 4 0 1 Topics - Module 1
(1)  −3 2 0  (2)  −2 1 0 
2 −3 45 −2 0 1
   
−2 0 1 0 0 2
(3)  0 −2 0  (4)  1 2 1 
−1 0 −4 2 0 3
Also, verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for them and check
whether they are invertible or not. If yes then find inverse,
using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Find basis for eigenspace corresponding to each eigenvalue
of the matrices.
Note that eigenspace of an eigenvalue is the space spanned
by eigenvectors corresponding to that eigenvalue.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

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Topics - Module 1
Results:
1. If A is an upper triangular, a lower triangular or a
diagonal matrix, then the eigenvalues of A are the
entries on the main diagonal of A
2. If k is a positive integer, λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix
A, and X ~ is a corresponding eigenvector, then λk is an
eigenvalue of Ak and X ~ is a corresponding eigenvector.
3. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if λ = 0 is
not an eigenvalue of A.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
Diagonalization:
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A square matrix A is called diagonalizable if there is an
Topics - Module 1
invertible matrix P such that P −1 AP is a diagonal matrix,
the matrix P is said to diagonalize A.
Results:
1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then the following are
equivalent:
(a) A is diagonalizable
(b) A has n linearly independent eigenvectors.
2. Eigenvectors of a square matrix A corresponding to
distinct eigenvalues are linearly independent.
3. If an order n square matrix A has distinct eigenvalues,
then A is diagonalizable.
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi
Procedure of diagonalization:
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To find diagonal matrix D = P −1 AP, find the eigenvalues Topics - Module 1

and the corresponding eigenvectors of the square matrix A of

order n. If the eigenvalues are λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn and the
corresponding eigenvectors are p~1 , p~2 , . . . , p~n and they are
linearly independent, then
 
λ1 0 · · · 0
 0 λ2 · · · 0 
D= .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
0 0 ··· λn
 
P= p~1 p~2 · · · p~n
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem: 105BS -
Mathematics II
Every square matrix satifies its characteristic equation.
R.B.Gandhi
Suppose A is a square matrix of order n and if its
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characteristic equation is,
Topics - Module 1

λn + c1 λn−1 + c2 λn−2 + · · · + cn−1 λ + cn = 0

then
An + c1 An−1 + c2 An−2 + · · · + cn−1 A + cn In = 0
as well.
Note that if matrix A has the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ,
then the coefficietns c1 , c2 , . . . , cn in the above equation can
be obtained using:
c1 = (−1)1 (λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λn ) = (−1)1 (sum of the eigenvalues)
c2 = (−1)2 (sum all pair products of the eigenvalues without repetition)
c3 = (−1)3 (sum all triple products of the eigenvalues without repetition)
..
.
cn = (−1)n (product of all the eigenvalues)
 105BS -
Mathematics II

R.B.Gandhi

List of References

Topics - Module 1
Check for the diagonalizability and find the diagonal matrix
and the matrix that diagonalize for the following matrices:

     
−2 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 0
A =  0 −2 0  B= 1 2 1  C = 0 1 0 
−1 0 −4 2 0 3 1 1 1

Also, find A5 , B −1 and C −1 .