DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable or wireless system.

fundamental characteristics:
1) Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
2) Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
3) Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
4) Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
A data communications system has five components.

1) Message
2) Sender
3) Receiver
4) Transmission Medium
5) Protocol
 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION …
1) Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2) Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3) Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4) Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5) Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating,
 DATA REPRESENTATION …
➢ Data representation refers to the way data is stored and processed inside a computer
using binary numbers (0s and 1s).
➢ Computers cannot understand letters or images directly.
➢ Everything must be converted into binary.

Why Binary?
➢ Computers use electronic circuits.
➢ Each circuit is either ON (1) or OFF (0) — that's why binary is used.

Types of Data Representation

1) Number
Represented using number systems:
o Binary (Base-2): 0, 1 → Used by computers
o Decimal (Base-10): 0 to 9 → Used by humans
o Octal (Base-8): 0 to 7
o Hexadecimal (Base-16): 0–9 and A–F
 DATA REPRESENTATION …
2) Characters
Represented using character encoding standards:
o ASCII: 7-bit code (e.g., A = 65 → 01000001)
o Unicode: For representing characters in all languages

3) Text
➢ A sequence of characters, stored using ASCII or Unicode.
➢ Example: "Hi" → 'H' = 72, 'i' = 105 in ASCII

4) Images
➢ Stored as a grid of pixels, each pixel represented in binary.
➢ Color images use RGB (Red, Green, Blue) values, each converted to binary.

5) Audio
➢ Analog sound is sampled and converted into binary.
➢ Stored in formats like WAV, MP3.

6) Video
➢ Series of images (frames) + audio.
➢ Each frame and sound is represented in binary format.
 DATA FLOW
➢ In data communication, the data flow
refers to the direction in which data
is transmitted between two devices.
➢ There are three main types of data
flow:
1) Simplex
2) Half-Duplex
3) Full Duplex
 DATA FLOW …
1) Simplex
➢ Data flows in one direction only (Unidirectional)
➢ One device is transmitter, the other is receiver.
➢ No reverse communication.
➢ Example: Keyboard to computer, or TV broadcast (TV only receives signal

2) Half Duplex
➢ Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
➢ When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
➢ Example: Walkie-talkies.
 DATA FLOW …
3) Full Duplex
➢ Data flows in both directions simultaneously. (/*/8+):/54'2
➢ Both devices can transmit and receive at the same time.
➢ Requires two separate communication channels (or full-duplex media).
➢ Example: Telephone conversation.
 NETWORK
➢ In data communication, a network refers to a collection of interconnected devices that
can share data and resources with each other.
➢ In this definition, a device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such
as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
➢ A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router, switch,
modem, hub.
a) Router – Connects different networks (e.g., LAN to Internet).
b) Switch – Connects devices in a LAN and forwards data based on MAC address.
c) Hub – Broadcasts data to all devices; less intelligent than a switch.
d) Modem – Converts digital data to analog and vice versa for Internet access.
 NETWORK …
A) Network Criteria
➢ In data communication, network criteria are the essential features or parameters used to
evaluate the performance and quality of a network.
➢ The main network criteria are:
1) Performance
2) Reliability
3) Security
 NETWORK …
1) Performance
➢ Refers to how well a network performs.
➢ Depends on:
a) Bandwidth: Maximum data rate (bps). HOZY3VKX3YKIUTJ

b) Throughput: Actual data transmitted per second.

c) Latency (Delay): Time taken for data to travel from source to destination.
d) Jitter: Variation in delay during transmission.
e) Response time: Time taken to respond to a request.
 NETWORK …
2) Reliability
➢ Ensures continuous service without failure.
➢ Includes:
a) Fault tolerance (network keeps working even after failure)
b) Availability (network is available when needed)
c) Recoverability (quick recovery after failure)
 NETWORK …
3) Security
➢ Protects data from unauthorized access, loss, or attacks.
➢ Includes:
a) Confidentiality (data privacy)
b) Integrity (data is not altered)
c) Authentication (verifying identity)
d) Access Control (only authorized users)
e) Encryption and firewalls
 NETWORK …

B) Type of connection

There are two possible types of

connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
1) Point-to-Point
2) Multipoint
 NETWORK …
1) Point-to-Point Connection
➢ A direct link between two devices.
➢ Example: Computer to printer via USB.
➢ Features:
• Simple.
• Secure and dedicated.

2) Multipoint Connection (Multidrop)

➢ A single link is shared by multiple devices.
➢ Example: Bus topology, classroom projector system.
➢ Types: Spatial: All devices active at the same time.
Temporal: Devices use the link one at a time (time-sharing).
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
➢ The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically
(Topology is a Physical layout of the network) .
➢ Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
➢ The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
➢ There are four basic topologies:
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES …
1) Bus Topology
➢ All devices connected to a single
cable (backbone).
➢ Data travels in both directions on a
shared medium

Advantages:
a) Easy to set up Disadvantages:
b) Low cost a) Collisions can occur
b) Hard to troubleshoot
c) Entire network fails if backbone fails
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES …
2) Star Topology
➢ All devices connected to a central device
(like a switch or hub).
➢ Most common in modern LANs.

Advantages:
a) Easy to manage
b) Easy to add/remove devices

Disadvantage:
a) If the central device fails, the entire
network goes down.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES …
3) Ring Topology
➢ Devices connected in a circular loop.
➢ Data travels in one direction (or both in
dual ring).

Advantages:
a) Easy to identify faults.
b) No data collision

Disadvantage:
a) If the ring is broken at any point, the
whole network can stop working (unless
it's a dual ring setup).
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES …
4) Mesh Topology
➢ Every device is connected to every other
device.
➢ Used in military or mission-critical networks.

Advantages:
a) High reliability
b) Fault tolerant

Disadvantages:
a) Expensive
b) Complex setup
 NETWORK TYPES

1) LAN (Local Area Network)

➢ Covers a small area (like a
building or room)
➢ Connecting computers in
schools, offices, or homes
➢ Office network, Home Wi-Fi
 NETWORK TYPES …

2) WAN (Wide Area Network)

➢ Covers a large geographical
area
➢ Connecting networks across
cities or nations
➢ The Internet, bank networks
 NETWORK TYPES …

3) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) 4) PAN (Personal Area Network)

➢ Covers a city or campus ➢ Covers a very short range

➢ Bluetooth devices, USB connections, mobile
➢ City-wide college network
hotspot
➢ Cable TV networks, university
campus networks
 OSI MODEL

➢ International Organization for

Standardization (ISO)
➢ Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.
➢ The OSI model is a conceptual
framework that standardizes how data
moves across a network, divided into 7
layers.
➢ Each layer performs a specific function.
 OSI MODEL …
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LAYER FUNCTION
Application Layer Interface for user applications (e.g., web browsers)
Presentation Layer Data translation, encryption, compression
Session Layer Starts, manages, and ends communication sessions
Transport Layer Reliable delivery, error checking (e.g., TCP)
Network Layer Routing, logical addressing (e.g., IP)
Data Link Layer MAC addressing, error detection (switching)
Physical Layer Transmission of bits over physical medium (cables)
 OSI MODEL …
1. Physical Layer
5. Session Layer
o Actual Physical Connection between device
o Sends raw bits over a medium
o Manages communication sessions
o Deals with hardware, cables, voltage, etc. o Starts, maintains, and ends sessions

2. Data Link Layer 6. Presentation Layer

o Organizes bits (data) into frames o Converts data to a format the application
o Adds MAC address, handles error detection & can understand
correction o Handles encryption, decryption,
compression
3. Network Layer
o Provides IP addressing and routing
o Finds best path for data
7. Application Layer
o Closest to the user
4. Transport Layer o Provides network services (e.g., HTTP,
o Ensures reliable data transfer FTP, SMTP)
o Uses TCP or UDP
o Handles error recovery & flow control
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
4/:'
➢ TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol) is a 4-layer model
used for network communication.
➢ It defines how data is transmitted from
one device to another over a network.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE …
1) Network Access Layer: 3) Transport Layer:
o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC o Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (faster, less
o Role: Handles how data is physically reliable)
sent (frames, bits, signals). o Role: Manages end-to-end
communication, error control, flow
2) Internet Layer: control
o Protocols: IP (IPv4/IPv6), ICMP, ARP
o Role: Routing, addressing, ensures 4) Application Layer:
data reaches correct destination. o Protocols: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, DNS,
DHCP
o Role: Provides services and applications
for the use
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

➢ A transmission medium can be

broadly defined as anything that
can carry information from a source
to a destination.
➢ Transmission media are actually
located below the physical layer
and are directly controlled by the
physical layer.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
A) Guided Media (Wired)
Data signals are guided through a physical medium such as wires or cables.

1) Twisted pair cable

➢ A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.
➢ One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
➢ Why are the wires twisted?
The twisting reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk from nearby wires.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
Types of Twisted Pair Cables:
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
➢ No extra shielding
➢ Most common in LANs and telephone networks
➢ Low cost, easy to install
➢ Example: Cat5, Cat6 cables

b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

➢ Has metal foil or mesh shield to reduce
interference
➢ Used in environments with high EMI
➢ More expensive than UTP
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …

Connectors
➢ The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack).
➢ The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
2) Coaxial Cable (Coax Cable)
➢ A coaxial cable is a type of guided (wired) transmission medium used to transmit high-
frequency electrical signals with low interference.
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➢ It is commonly used in cable TV, broadband internet, and CCTV systems.
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➢ Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
Coaxial Cable Connectors:
➢ Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
3) Fiber Optic Cable
➢ A fiber optic cable is a high-speed transmission medium that uses light signals to carry
data through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.
➢ It offers very high bandwidth and is ideal for long-distance and high-speed
communication.

Main Components
a) Core:- The central glass fiber through which light travels
b) Cladding :- Reflects light back into the core to minimize signal loss
c) Buffer Coating:- Protects the fiber from moisture and damage
d) Outer Jacket:- Final protective layer of the cable
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
Propagation Modes in Optical Fiber:
i) Single-Mode Fiber (SMF):
➢ Light travels in one path
➢ Small core (8–10 µm)
➢ Long-distance, high speed
➢ Used in telecom and internet backbone

ii) Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF):

➢ Light travels in multiple paths
➢ Larger core (50–62.5 µm)
➢ Short-distance, more dispersion
➢ Used in LANs and campus networks
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
a) Step-Index Multi-Mode Fiber
➢ Has a uniform core refractive index.
➢ Light reflects in a zigzag pattern.
➢ More modal dispersion → lower bandwidth.
➢ Used for short distance and low-speed communication.

b) Graded-Index Multi-Mode Fiber

➢ Core has a gradually changing refractive index (highest at center, lower at edges).
➢ Light rays bend smoothly instead of reflecting sharply.
➢ Less dispersion, better performance than step-index.
➢ Suitable for moderate distances and higher speeds.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure 7.15.
➢ The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking
system.
➢ The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It
uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
➢ MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
B) Unguided media
➢ Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
➢ This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
➢ Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.

1) Radio Waves
➢ Frequency: 3 kHz – 1 GHz
➢ Can travel long distances
➢ Pass through walls easily
➢ Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send
out signals in all directions.
➢ Used in: AM/FM radio, TV, mobile phones
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA …
2) Microwaves
➢ Frequency: 1 GHz – 300 GHz
➢ Line-of-sight communication (needs no
obstacles)
➢ Microwaves need unidirectional antennas
that send out signals in one direction.
➢ Used in: Satellite communication,
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Mobile networks

3) Infrared (IR)
➢ Frequency: 300 GHz – 400 THz
➢ Short-range, no penetration through walls
➢ Used in: TV remotes, short-distance device
communication
 STRUCTURED CABLING
Structured cabling is a standardized system of cables and hardware that provides a
comprehensive telecommunications infrastructure.

It supports:
o Data transmission
o Voice communication
o Video signals
o Internet connectivity

Features:
o Organized and scalable
o Easy to manage and troubleshoot
o Supports high-speed communication
 STRUCTURED CABLING …
1) Category 5 (CAT5) and CAT5e Cables

CAT5e is more common today than CAT5 for high-speed LANs.

 STRUCTURED CABLING …
2) RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232)

RS-232 is a serial communication standard used for connecting computers and peripheral
devices, like: Modems, Mice ,Serial printers

Key Features:
o Transmission: Serial (one bit at a time)
o Cable length: Up to 15 meters (max reliable)
o Voltage levels: ±3V to ±15V (logic HIGH/LOW)
o Connector types: DB9 or DB25

Uses:
o Point-to-point communication
o Low-speed serial communication (up to 115.2 kbps)
STRUCTURED CABLING …
 SWITCHING
➢ Switching is the process of transferring
data from a source to a destination
through intermediate network devices
(like switches or routers).
➢ It helps efficiently route data in
networks.

Why Switching?
➢ To choose the best path for data.
➢ To manage network traffic.
➢ To connect multiple devices in a
network.
 SWITCHING …
1) Circuit Switching
This switching technique operates in the following three phases:
a) Establishing a circuit
b) Transferring the data
c) Disconnecting the circuit

a) Establishing a Circuit
In this phase,
o A circuit is established between the two ends.
o Circuit provides a dedicated path for data to travel from one to the other end.
o Resources are reserved at intermediate switches which are used during the transmission.
o The intermediate switches are connected by the physical links.

b) Transferring The Data

o After the circuit is established, The entire data travels over the dedicated path from one end to the
other end.

c) Disconnecting The Circuit

o After the data transfer is completed, the circuit is torn down i.e. disconnected.
 SWITCHING …
Example: Traditional landline telephone network

Advantages:
o A well defined and dedicated path exists for the data to travel.
o There is no header overhead.
o There is no waiting time at any switch and the data is transmitted without any delay.
o Data always reaches the other end in order.
o No re ordering is required.

Disadvantages:
o The channel is blocked for two ends only.
o It is inefficient in terms of utilization of system resources.
o The time required for establishing the circuit between the two ends is too long.
o Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques.
o Routing decisions can not be changed once the circuit is established.
 SWITCHING …
Problem-
Consider all links in the network use TDM with 24 slots and have a data rate of 1.536 Mbps. Assume
that host A takes 500 msec to establish an end to end circuit with host B before begin to transmit the
file. If the file is 512 kilobytes, then how much time will it take to send the file from host A to host B?
 SWITCHING …
2) packet switching
o The entire message to be sent is divided into multiple smaller size packets.
o This process of dividing a single message into smaller size packets is called as packetization.
o These smaller packets are sent after the other.
o It gives the advantage of pipelining and reduces the total time taken to transmit the message.

Types of Packet Switching:

a) Datagram Packet Switching
o Each packet is treated independently.
o Packets may arrive out of order.
o Example: Internet Protocol (IP).
b) Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
o A logical path is established before sending packets.
o All packets follow the same path, so they arrive in order.
o Example: X.25, Frame Relay.
 SWITCHING …
Structure of a Packet:
Each packet typically contains: Advantages:
▪ Header: Source & destination address, ▪ Efficient use of bandwidth.
packet number, error-checking info. ▪ Robust against failure (if one path fails,
▪ Payload: Actual data being transmitted. another can be used).
▪ Trailer (optional): End-of-packet signal, ▪ Supports multiple users on the same
checksum, etc. network.

Example Scenario: Disadvantages:

You want to send a 10 KB file: ▪ Packets may arrive out of order or get lost.
▪ It’s broken into 10 packets of 1 KB each. ▪ Requires complex protocols to reassemble
▪ These packets travel through the network. and manage packets.
▪ Some go via Route A, others via Route B. ▪ Delay (latency) may vary (called jitter).
▪ At the destination, the packets are
reassembled in order.
 SWITCHING …
3) message switching
o There exists no dedicated path to transfer data.
o The entire message is treated as a single data unit.
o The message is then forwarded from hop to hop.
o Store and Forward is an important characteristic of message switching.
o The message carries a header that contains the full information about the destination.
o When any intermediate switch receives the message, it stores the entire message.
o The message is stored until sufficient resources become available to transfer it to the next switch.
o When resources become available, the switch forwards the message to the next switch.

Example: Telegraph system

Advantages:
o It improves the channel efficiency over circuit switched network.
o In circuit switched network, the channel is blocked for two ends only.
o But here, more devices can share the channel.

Disadvantages:
o It requires enough storage at every switch to accommodate the entire message during the transmission.