Problem solving

Juan Ignacio Pozo

SantillanaPublishing

Madrid, 1994

This material is used for purposes

exclusively educational
 INDEX
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................9

1. YOU WILL LEARN TO SOLVE PROBLEMS AND SOLVE PROBLEMS TO LEARN,

by María del Puy Pérez Echeverría and Juan Ignacio Pozo Municio
Introduction: problem solving as content of Compulsory Education ........................ 14
From the exercise to the problem ............................................................................................ 17
Problem solving as general skills ................................................................... 21
Types of problems ................................................................................................................ 22
Steps in solving a problem ........................................................................................ 25
Problem solving as a specific process: differences between experts and novices ........... 34
The personal strategies of experts and novices ..................................................................... 38
The specificity of knowledge fields ...................................................................... 41
The acquisition of objective reasoning habits ................................................................... 46
The transfer to everyday problem solving ............................................................. 50

2. THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS IN MATHEMATICS,

by María del Puy Pérez Echeverría
The problem solving in the Mathematics curriculum ............................ 54
From the multiple meanings of "solving a problem" in Mathematics ........................................ 57
Types of problems in the teaching of Mathematics ............................................................... 60
The mathematical exercises ..................................................................................................... 60
Quantitative and qualitative problems in Mathematics 62
The teaching and learning of the process of solving a mathematical problem ......................... 64
Translation and definition of the problem
Linguistic and semantic knowledge .................................................................................. 68
Schematic knowledge ................................................................................................. 70
How to facilitate problem definition? ......................................................................... 73
Techniques and strategies for problem solving ................................................................ 75
Teaching problem-solving: a different teaching task

3. THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS IN NATURAL SCIENCES,

by Juan Ignacio Pozo Municio and Miguel Ángel Gómez Crespo
The problem-solving in the Natural Sciences curricula ........................................ 86
School problems: differences with scientific and everyday problems .............................. 89
Types of school problems .....................................................................................................100
Qualitative problems ...........................................................................................................101
Quantitative problems .........................................................................................................103
Small research investigations
The teaching and learning of problem solving:
from everyday knowledge to scientific
Definition of the problem and formulation of hypotheses
What do we understand by prior knowledge?
The activation of prior knowledge in problem solving ............................114
Acquisition of strategies for problem solving .........................................................117
Reflection on the evaluation of results and decision making ....................................................126

[Link] SOLUTION OFPROBLEMS IN SOCIALSCIENCES,

by Jesús Domínguez Castillo
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................134
The problem-solving solution in the Social Sciences curricula of Mandatory Education ..........138
The objectives .........................................................................................................................141

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 The contents ......................................................................................................................142
The evaluation criteria ............................................................................................145
The problems in the teaching of Social Sciences ....................................................................146
What do we understand by problems? ..........................................................................................146
Characteristics of Social Science problems
and types of school problems that arise .........................................................................150
They are poorly defined problems.
Solutions necessarily involve value options ................................................152
The problems are mediated by the sources of information .................................154
The teaching and learning of social problem solving ..............................................157
The traditional teaching model and memorization learning .................................................159
The model of discovery teaching and constructive learning .....................................160
The model of teaching by exposure and reconstructive learning
The complementary role of concepts and procedures in learning
from problem-solving in social subjects ................................................................164
Design and formulation of school problems in the teaching of Social Sciences ....................167
Presentation and definition of the problem ..........................................................172
Theoretical exposition ...........................................................................................173
Implementation and solution of the problem ...................................................................................174
Reflection and evaluation of the results
Conclusion

5. PROBLEM SOLVING AS PROCEDURAL CONTENT OF THE

COMPULSORY EDUCATION,
by Juan Ignacio Pozo Municio and Yolanda Postigo Angón
Introduction: what is common in the solution of different problems .....................................180
Problem solving as procedural content: techniques and strategies ............................181
A classification of the procedures necessary to solve problems ..................................188
Acquisition of information
Interpretation of the information ...............................................................193
Analysis of information and making inferences
Understanding and conceptual organization of information
Communication of information
The teaching of problem-solving
On how to pose problems and not just exercises ....................................................................205
Teaching problem-solving: from players to coaches .....................................................209
Problem solving in Primary Education and in Secondary Education ....................212

BIBLIOGRAPHICREFERENCES .........................................................................................215

INDEXOFAUTHORS 225

THEMATICINDEX .................................................................................................................227

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4
5. PROBLEM SOLVING AS CONTENT
PROCEDURAL OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION*

Juan Ignacio Pozo Municio y Yolanda Postigo Angón**

Introduction: what is common in solving different problems. Problem solving

as procedural content: techniques and strategies. A classification of procedures
necessary to solve problems. The teaching of problem solving.

Introduction:whatiscommoninsolvingdifferentproblems

In the previous chapters, we have seen how in the different areas of the curriculum, students...
when faced with problems of a different nature, which require them to activate knowledge
specific factual and conceptual aspects, as well as mastery of techniques and strategies that in many cases
they differ from one area to another. As we saw in chapter 1, recent research highlights the character
specific to the knowledge involved in solving different types of problems, based on the
comparisons between expert and novice individuals (for example, CHI, GLASER and FARR, 1988; ERICSSON
and SMITH, 1991; in Spanish see chapter VIII of POZO, 1989). Likewise, the teaching of
problem-solving is abandoning a generalist approach –based on the idea that students
they could learn general or 'ideal' models useful for solving any problem - in favor of a
a more specific approach, linked to the conceptual content and the domains of knowledge to which
problems belong. Students cannot be "taught to think" or to "solve problems" in
general. aside from the specific contents of each area of the curriculum (for example, BRANDSFORDet
et al., 1989; HALPERN, 1992). Consequently, teaching problem-solving must be a
content more from each of the subjects, of variable importance, according to one's own beliefs and the
Teaching model implemented by each teacher or each institution within an open curriculum.
Now, the fact that students need to be taught to solve school problems
The specificities of each area should not imply that in each area the teaching of problem-solving is addressed.
in a different or disconnected way from what happens in other areas. Although the knowledge
conceptual and some of the necessary strategies to solve a Mathematics problem and to
Making a simulation game in Geography is different, a careful reading of the previous chapters.
It will also reveal that there are many common difficulties for the teaching and learning of the solution.
of problems in those various domains. Although the knowledge that needs to be taught to students for
solving problems in different areas are only partially coincident, the difficulties in teaching them
are relatively constant. A common or globalized treatment of some of the features of teaching
of problem solving in Compulsory Education not only can facilitate its inclusion in the
curriculum is more systematic and balanced, but it can also help to overcome some of the
learning difficulties that have been specifically noted for each area of the curriculum,
in the previous chapters. Perhaps the best way to identify the common traits in the teaching of the
different types of problems should be situated within the context of the curricular contents, where obviously the
problem-solving, in all the analyzed areas, would be found closer to the contents
procedural.

Problemsolvingasproceduralcontent:techniquesandstrategies

*
This work is part of a research funded by CIDE titled: The strategies
of learning as procedural contents, in which Ignacio Gonzalo also collaborates.
**
Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
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 Undoubtedly, as educational content, problem-solving has an essentially
procedural, since, as has been seen in the previous chapters, it requires students to engage in
It follows a sequence of steps according to a preconceived plan aimed at achieving a goal.
Although, as was pointed out in chapter 1 (p.15), the solution of problems cannot be separated from the
conceptual or attitudinal content, many of its characteristics as learning content are derived
of that procedural nature.
What makes problem-solving a predominantly procedural content is that
consists in knowing how to do something, and not just in saying it or understanding it. This is a trait that defines the
procedural content, as opposed to traditional conceptual content (for a
detailed characterization of procedures as contents of the curriculum, see COLL and VALLS, 1992;
VALLS, 1993). This peculiar feature of the procedures refers to ANDERSON's (1983) distinction between
declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge (also called procedural). ANDERSON
(1983) supports this distinction in the already classical differentiation between 'knowing what' and 'knowing how'. From this
form, in contrast to traditional conceptual and factual content, the procedures, as a product
of learning, they would have their own differential characteristics. Table 5.1 summarizes the main differences.
between declarative and procedural knowledge, according to ANDERSON (1983).

TABLE51..DIFFERENCESBETWEENKNOWLEDGE
DECLARATIVEANDPROCEDURAL

Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge

It consists of knowing what. It consists of knowing how.

∙ It is easy to verbalize. ∙ It's hard to verbalize.
∙ You either have everything or nothing. ∙ It is partially owned.
∙ It is purchased at once. ∙ It is acquired gradually.
∙ It is acquired by exposure (acquisition ∙ It is acquired through practice (acquisition by
receptiva). discovery) .
∙ Essentially controlled processing. ∙ Essentially automatic processing.
∙

The basic idea of this distinction is that people have two different forms available, and not
always related, to knowing the world. On one hand, we know how to say things about physical reality and
social; on the other hand, we know how to do things that affect those same realities. Although both types of
knowledge should in many cases coincide, in many others it is not the case. In the case of the solution of
problems, it is obvious that students often have conceptual or verbal knowledge that is not
able to use in the context of a specific task. They know how to say something - and they do it efficiently every day.
of the exam - but they do not know how to do anything or almost anything with that knowledge. Our own experience as
students or learners have been and are filled with examples of this type (knowing the conjugation of verbs
English speakers and grammatical forms, but unable to produce even a sentence; knowing the theories
psychological or pedagogical but not knowing how to apply them to teaching, etc.
Conversely, sometimes we perform actions that would be very difficult for us to describe or define. Returning to the
an example of LESTER (1983) mentioned in chapter 1 makes it easier for us to ride a bicycle than to speak
What needs to be done to ride a bicycle. In general, this happens with most procedures:
we know how to do them (for example, schedule the video, organize a work group, assess the quality of a
exhibition, etc.) but we can barely say them. In fact, a good part of the teaching skills and resources
Among those we have, the teachers have this trait; we know how to do it but we hardly achieve it.
verbalize how we do it. This often happens with problem-solving. We know how to solve the
problems that we present to our students, but we are not always aware of the steps we take
to solve them, which makes it very difficult for us to help students to give them.
The distinction established by ANDERSON (1983) allows for a precise psychological meaning to
this divergence between what we can say and do. It would involve two different types of knowledge that,
In addition, in many cases they would be acquired through different means. As shown in table 5.1, knowledge

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Declarative is easily verbalizable, it can be acquired through verbal exposure and is usually conscious. It is the
What happens to our knowledge about pedagogical theories or to the student's knowledge about
electricity or the organization of feudal societies. In contrast, procedural knowledge does not
we are always able to verbalize it, it is acquired more effectively through action and is executed at
often automatically, without us being aware of it. The way we manage the classroom,
we discriminate response types in the evaluation or we organize an exhibition many times the
features of an automated procedure that we perform routinely, without excessive reflection.
In fact, according to ANDERSON (1983), the purpose of procedures is precisely to automate.
knowledge that would otherwise be costly and complex to implement. It would therefore be about
convert declarative knowledge (for example, instructions for driving a car) into
automated procedures (the sequence of actions required to start and drive a car).
In fact, as we saw in chapter 1 (p. 39), one of the effects of practice and instruction is
precisely converting into automated skills what are difficult abilities for other people
execution; being an expert in something would consist, according to this point of view, in mastering automated skills, of
a way in which cognitive resources would be freed up to tackle tasks that novices could not access (for
example, CHI, GLASER and FARR, 1988; ERICSSON and SMITH, 1991; POZO, 1989.
The distinction established by ANDERSON (1983) is undoubtedly useful for understanding the nature
psychological aspect of the procedures. However, this conception is not without criticism (for example,
GLASER, 1990). From an educational standpoint, there are two aspects in which the characterization of
ANDERSON would be insufficient for the analysis of the contents of the curriculum. Firstly, and although
it is not the subject of this work, the conception of declarative knowledge as an exclusively knowing
descriptive, reflected in table 5.1., overlooks the important distinction between factual information and the
concepts (for example, POZO, 1992). Conceptual knowledge cannot be reduced to simple knowledge.
descriptive and neither its nature nor the processes through which it is learned are similar to that of information
factual. One can know that winters are cold or that the reduction of inflation in a country usually
increase unemployment, but not knowing how to explain any of the phenomena. WELLINGTON (1989) has reached
suggest the need to introduce a third type of knowledge – the explanatory knowledge – that would be
related to knowing why (Why are winters cold? Why does unemployment rise when it falls?
inflation?) and that, consequently, it would be connected to problem-solving.
A second criticism would relate to the nature of the procedures. Although in many
cases are sequences of automated actions, but it is not always the case. There are some procedures that
can only be executed in a conscious and deliberate manner. Problem-solving strategies would be
procedures that are intentionally and deliberately applied to a task and that cannot be reduced to
automated routines. Thus, the formulation and testing of hypotheses is undoubtedly a set of
procedures that can only be applied consciously. Among the procedures that students
they must acquire to solve problems, some consist of techniques or routines that must be automated (for
example, the conversion of measurement units from one system to another or the decoding of a graph or a
table) while others require planning and control in their execution (for example, the design of a
experiment or the search for sources of information to contrast a certain explanation of a
social or historical phenomenon.
There would therefore be a double route for learning, not necessarily incompatible or
contradictory. As several authors have suggested, the acquisition of expertise or skill in an area can
to be well grounded in the routine domain of techniques or skills or in another more conscious or meaningful one of those
skills that allow for adaptation and generalization to new learning situations. These two forms
Being an expert constitutes, in turn, two distinct ways of acquiring procedural knowledge. Without
embargo, they are not equally effective when it comes to learning to solve problems. In the first case, we
we will find ourselves in front of a routine domain of techniques and skills, useful for solving exercises, but not problems;
in the second, before a more controlled and planned use of those same techniques for strategic purposes. It is
this last type of use of procedural content is linked to strategies of
problem-solving.
Conceived as sequences of actions performed consciously and deliberately, the product of
a prior reflection, problem-solving strategies would not conform to the traits that ANDERSON

7
(1983) attributes to procedural knowledge. Some features that would identify the use of strategies
on the part of the students and not the simple routine execution of overlearned techniques would be the following:
a) Its application would not be automatic but controlled. It would require planning and control of execution.
they would be related to metacognition or knowledge about one's own psychological processes.
b) They would involve a selective use of the available resources and capabilities. For a subject to be able to
implementing a strategy must have alternative resources, among which it decides to use,
function of the demands of the learning task presented to him, those he considers most optimal.
Without a variety of resources, it is not possible to act strategically.
c) The strategies would be composed of other simpler elements, which would constitute techniques or skills.
The implementation of a strategy (such as formulating and testing a hypothesis about the
influence of mass on the falling speed of an object) requires mastering simpler techniques
from isolating variables to mastering the instruments for measuring mass and velocity or recording by
written what has been observed, etc.). In fact, the effective use of a strategy largely depends on the
mastery of the techniques that make it up. Use a mathematical technique (for example, 'the rule of
three") as a resource within a problem-solving strategy (calculating per capita income
relative to two countries) will only be possible if the student masters that technique with a certain level of effectiveness.
Assigning these characteristics to problem-solving strategies implies recognizing their
close connection with other contents, not only procedural but also conceptual. In fact, a
An adequate analysis of strategies cannot be made without understanding their relationships with other processes.
psychological. Figure 5.1 shows the various psychological processes involved in acquisition of
problem-solving strategies. As can be seen, the strategies limit the south with the techniques
aforementioned. Mastery of strategies enables the student to plan and organize their own
problem-solving activities. Those activities or procedures that are part of the strategies
they are usually referred to as techniques, skills, or algorithms. Thus, to complete each of the phases of
solution of a problem the student must master some basic techniques, the more automated they are
They will facilitate the possibility of deliberately including them in a strategy.

While the use of a strategy requires mastery of the techniques that compose it, a strategy of
problem solving cannot be reduced simply to a series of techniques. The strategies limit the
north with the control processes in the execution of those techniques, which also require a certain degree of

8
metacognition or awareness of one's own problem-solving processes. This
metacognition, which is a product of reflection not just on the problems, but on the way of
solving them is necessary for the student to be able to make strategic use of their skills, in
relationship primarily with two essential tasks: the selection and planning of the most effective techniques for
each type of problem (phase 2 of the POLYA model presented in chapter 1) and the evaluation of success or
failure obtained after the application of the strategy (phase 4).
But in addition to these essential components, there are other psychological processes necessary for
solving a problem. It is hardly possible to apply a strategy to a specific task without a
specific conceptual knowledge related to the task. As has been shown and illustrated
repeatedly in chapters 2, 3, and 4, to solve a problem not only procedures are needed but also
also concepts and factual knowledge. Thus, the solution of a scientific problem through a process of
The formulation and verification of hypotheses depend not only on the 'method' followed but also in a very special way.
from the hypotheses that have been established (see chapter 3).
Another important component is the so-called support strategies, using the terminology of
DANSEREAU (1985), which would consist of a series of processes that are not specific to the solution
of problems, are a necessary support for any learning, such as maintaining attention and the
concentration, stimulate motivation and self-esteem, adopt attitudes of cooperation at work in
group, etc. These support strategies for problem solving are closely connected with the component
attitudinal of learning.
Lastly, some basic processes are required, the development or progress of which will make it possible
acquisition of certain knowledge necessary for the application of a strategy or the use of certain
techniques or skills. Thus, for a student to be able to use proportional calculation in a strategy
To solve problems, it is necessary to have achieved a certain mastery of operational schemes.
characteristic of formal thought.
Ultimately, problem-solving strategies would not constitute an independent component.
of the rest of the psychological processes and school contents. But although in the context of the classroom
are closely related to other content, the specific nature of problem-solving is that
requires mastering appropriate techniques and strategies. Therefore, teaching problem-solving
requires, in the context of the relationships we have pointed out, to teach and instruct in the use of procedures
effective. Ultimately, teaching and learning problem-solving involves not only a
a determined approach to education but also to introduce skills and
strategies specific to each area of the curriculum.
Now then, what procedures need to be taught in each area and stage to help students to
solve problems? The Curricular Designs of each of those areas and stages detail the
procedures that the student must master by the end of it. However, frequently - and
difference of the conceptual contents - those procedures appear as a mere list, without
there is an organization of the same that helps with their sequencing within the curriculum. Consequently,
a classification of those skills and strategies in the context of procedural contents of the
Mandatory education can help organize those that are necessary to solve problems within.
from the curriculum.

Aclassificationoftheproceduresnecessarytosolveproblems

Although in the different stages of the curriculum the specific procedures required to
resolving problems may be different, we can again find certain common criteria that serve us
to organize them. In fact, in chapters 2, 3, and 4 we have seen how the specificity of the various
Contents cannot hide the existence of a common scheme or process of solution to those diverse areas.
Although the POLYA scheme we analyzed in chapter 1 (table 1.1, p. 26) might not be
taught as such, without filling it with the content specific to each subject, does constitute a conceptual instrument
useful for understanding the problem-solving process. Thus, the steps proposed by this author
(understand the problem, conceive a plan, execute the plan, and examine the solution) correspond to
translation and solution of the problem in the area of Mathematics (chapter 2) or with the different phases of
scientific method in the area of Nature Sciences (chapter 3) or with the basic scheme of the solution

9
of social problems. At the same time, to complete those different phases or steps in the solution of a
problem, students would need to acquire specific procedures for each of those areas. Although
the procedures are different in each area, their function within the learning process is relatively
similar.
Thus, taking into account the function that procedures or strategies fulfill for the solution of a
problem, we could differentiate five types of procedures (POZO and POSTIGO, 1993):
1. Acquisition of information.
2. Interpretation of the information.
3. Analysis of information and making inferences.
4. Understanding and conceptual organization of information.
5. Communication of information.
As can be seen, such a classification allows for a thorough analysis of the
required procedures for solving a problem, which facilitates its differential training and
specific. Although univocal correspondences cannot be established, the translation or definition of
problem (first phase in the POLYA model) requires acquiring new information and interpreting it; the
Selection and execution of the strategy (phases 2 and 3) require analysis of the available information and implementation.
inferences about it; and finally, the evaluation of the results usually involves processes of
conceptual reorganization and reflection on one's own knowledge, along with procedures for communication
the information.
However, as we mentioned in the previous chapters regarding the different phases of the
solution to a problem, this does not obviously mean that every problem-solving involves
not necessarily in the same way the five types of procedures, nor that the application of these
it must necessarily follow the same sequential order, since in many cases the phases that make up
they can be interconnected in a complex way, with a continuous reformulation of each of them.
It's just a logical sequence, a theoretical criterion that can be useful for understanding.
better the procedures that students must acquire to be able to 'solve problems' and that, in
Ultimately, it can provide criteria for organizing and sequencing the contents more appropriately.
procedural in the curriculum, both within each of the areas and in the connection between them.
A more detailed analysis of the procedures included in each typology can help to
understand the meaning of the proposed taxonomy; with this in mind, we will exemplify each of them in the
different areas of the curriculum addressed in the previous chapters1 .

Acquisition of information

Firstly, the procedures dedicated to the acquisition of information are distinguished.

to say, to incorporate new information or add knowledge to the already existing. It would be about everyone
those procedures related to the search, collection, and selection of necessary information in
first place to define and pose the problem and, later on, to solve it. Likewise, the
procedures or techniques aimed at maintaining in memory the received information, with the purpose
that is learned or acquired. Table 5.2 lists some of the main procedures to which
students can turn to acquire new information.
As can be seen, four subgroups of procedures are established within this category.
Firstly, information can be collected through observation, whether directly or indirectly,
through the use of certain instruments. For example, in Primary Education, within the area of
Knowledge of the Natural Environment requires students to have the 'use of simple instruments (tweezers,'

1
The examples presented below are taken from the procedural contents of various
areas of both Primary Education (Knowledge of the Environment and Mathematics) and Secondary Education
(Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, and Mathematics), as established in the Royal Decree
1344/1991 and 1345/1991 of September 6, 1991 (annex, pp. 5 and 41 respectively). Similar examples
They can be found in the documents that establish the minimum teachings for both Primary Education.
as Secondary, as well as in the curricula corresponding to the different Autonomous Communities.
10
binoculars, etc.) for the observation of animals and plants" or the "exploration of objects and situations
using all the senses,” while in Secondary Education, within the area of Sciences of the
Nature, students are required to 'observe the sky with the naked eye and with instruments.
simple techniques" or the "use of techniques to know the level of air pollution, as well as its
debugging.

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 TABLE5.2PROCEDURESFORINFORMATIONACQUISITION
Acquisition of information
Observation. Direct
2. Indirect: techniques and instruments.
Selection of information. Note-taking
Oral source
Summary.
-Underline
2. Source text/graphic Note-taking.
Summary.
Note-taking.
3. Visual source
-Summary.

Information search. 1. Libraries, texts, documents....

2. Media (radio, press...)
3. Use of various documentary sources.
Review and memorization of information. Review and repetition exercises
2. Use of mnemonics.

Such observation usually requires recording and taking notes on what is observed. In this last
In this case, it is also required to be able to make a selection of information. The procedures that
they allow selecting the present information that can be applied not only to observation but also to
oral and written discourse and the information presented graphically.
When the format of the collected information and its registration are not the same, it will be required
decode or translate the information through interpretation procedures that we will refer to
later. An example of these procedures would be in the area of Mathematics in Primary Education
collection and recording of data on objects, phenomena, and family situations using techniques
elementary aspects of surveys, observation, and measurement” or “...the selection and recording of information related to
to current issues using the usual media
Socials.
This type of procedures, which would be related to skills usually taught in the
study habit courses, such as note-taking, summarizing, or highlighting, are also found in the
base de otros procedimientos más complejos, como pone de manifiesto el siguiente ejemplo de contenido de
Social Sciences in Secondary Education: “Search, analysis, interpretation and critical valuation of
information about societies or cultures different from one's own from various media and sources
information (written, materials, visual, etc.).
But collecting and selecting information is often insufficient. Frequently, students
They must first conduct a search for information. Thus, in Social Sciences and in Sciences of the
Nature is asked to extract information from the media, for example, 'collection of
information through the media about events in the European Community
(Knowledge of the Social Environment in Primary) or "search, selection and recording of information related to
current issues making use of the usual means of communication" (Social Sciences,
Secondary), and in Mathematics the "use of various documentary sources (yearbooks, magazines
specialized databases, etc.), to obtain statistical information" in Secondary.
The growing complexity and diversity of information sources requires increasingly more resources.
technical skills and practical knowledge that allow for mastery. The active search for information by
students should be based on the mastery of some of those techniques. In Secondary Education, it will be required
students not only gather information from diverse sources, but also integrate it by differentiating their
origins.
A final category of procedures related to information acquisition would be the
review and memorization of information. Although these procedures take up a good part of the

12
Research on students' learning strategies (for example, POZO, 1990) is significant.
absence among the procedural content of the Compulsory Education curriculum, possibly due to
that these review strategies tend to be mastered at a very early age and without the need to be
trained (for example, FLAVELL, 1985). In any case, this absence in the curriculum content
it contrasts with the time and effort that students usually dedicate to the use of this type of
procedures.

Interpretation of the information

Once the information is collected and selected, it is necessary to interpret in order to solve a problem.
that information, that is, to encode it or translate it into a new code or language with which the student is
familiar and with which I can connect that new information received. These procedures would have
to facilitate the connection of new information with the student's memory contents,
playing an important role in activating prior knowledge in problem solving that, like
we have seen, it is essential for understanding the problem. Table 5.3 summarizes some of the
procedures that students must use to interpret information in problem-solving
schoolchildren.
A first group of fundamental procedures for problem-solving would be those that
students require a decoding or translation of the message or information into a new format. It is
It is common for students to have to translate the verbal statement of a problem into an algebraic format.
convert a series of data into a graphic representation or convert miles into kilometers. Each of
these operations require decoding information received in a certain format or code (verbal,
numeric, analog, etc.) either by translating it to a code different from the original or by keeping it within the
original code but changing some of its parameters.

[Link]
Interpretation of the information
Decoding of information.
a) Intercode
1. Translation or - verbal - graphic
transformation - verbal - numerical
of the information. - graphic - verbal
b) Intracode
.
Application of models Reception/understanding of the application of a model to a
interpret situations real situation.
2. Application of a model to a real situation
3. Implementation of the application of a model to a real situation
Use of analogies and metaphors for
interpret the information Reception / understanding of analogies and metaphors
2. Activation / production of analogies and metaphors
.

In the first case, when it comes to converting information from one code to another, the student must
master specific procedures of intercode decoding, such as when requested in
Social Environment Knowledge in Primary "reading and interpretation of aerial photos corresponding to
"known landscapes" or in Secondary School, in Social Sciences, the "reading and interpretation of aerial photographs".
plans and maps of different characteristics and scales; and the creation of plans and maps based on
information obtained from different sources (direct observations, aerial photographs, statistical data,
databases, etc.)"; or in the area of Mathematics, the "mathematical representation of a situation
using different languages successively (verbal, graphic, and numerical) and establishing correspondences
among themselves" in Primary, or the "representation, on a line or through diagrams and figures, of

13
integers, simple fractions and decimals, and numerical problems" in Secondary Education;
as in Secondary School Natural Sciences, the 'representation through chemical formulas of
some chemical substances present in the environment or of special interest due to their uses and applications.
Examples could multiply, as these are very common operations that, however, usually go unnoticed.
unnoticed, but they are an essential requirement for problem-solving in the different areas of
resume
A second type of decoding procedures would be intracode and would be used when it was ...
it is necessary to perform some translation or conversion of information while staying within the same code or
format in which it was presented. Examples of this type of procedures would be the 'preparation and
interpretation of questionnaires and interviews on human uses of elements of the physical environment (air,
water, mineral rocks) in Knowledge of the Natural Environment, in Primary, or the creation of sequences
temporary events obtained from diverse sources, using for this the units and
chronological conventions in Secondary Social Sciences; or the use of the Metric System
Decimal in Primary education, and the use of different procedures (converting from decimal to fraction or vice versa,
expression of the data in other more suitable units...) to carry out calculations more easily
in Secondary, in the area of Mathematics.
In many cases, the two types of decoding are not only closely linked to each other.
(for example, "solving first degree equations by algebraic transformation and other equations
by numerical and graphical methods") but also to other information selection procedures
(note-taking, synthesis, summaries, etc.) showing the close connection that exists between the various types of
procedures involved in problem solving.
Other interpretation procedures that students must regularly use to provide
The meaning of their learning consists of the application of models to interpret situations.
understanding the problem requires the active construction by the student of models that allow them to
integrate the new information. This activation of prior knowledge is required, for example, when one
ask the primary school student for the 'identification of everyday life problems that involve one or
various of the four operations, distinguishing the possible relevance and application of each of them
secondary school student the "identification of numerical problems by differentiating the known elements of
"those that are intended to be known and the relevant from the irrelevant" in Mathematics, or in Knowledge of
Natural Environment in Primary, the "identification of operators (pulleys, levers, wheel, etc.) in the environment
habitual", or the "identification and analysis of situations in everyday life where they occur
transformations and exchanges of energy in Secondary Natural Sciences.
An additional example of interpretation procedure present in content classifications
procedural would be the formulation and use of analogies and metaphors to interpret information.
However, it is not easy to find clear examples of procedural content of this type (such as the
identification of similarities between figures and geometric bodies... This scarcity may be due to the fact that the
instruction tends to focus more on the presentation of already formed analogies or metaphors (for example, the
the 'planetary' model of the atom) that requires students to form metaphors (POZO, 1990).

Analysis of information and making inferences

Once interpreted or decoded, the information is usually analyzed, meaning that usually
inferences in order to extract new implicit knowledge from the information presented in the
problem. To address this, reasoning techniques and skills are required. Although it is not easy to do a
synthetic and at the same time comprehensive classification of analysis and inference procedures, the table
5.4. try to gather some of the most important ones.
A first group of procedures would be the result of the application of models for the
interpretation of situations, to which we have just referred, and that usually leads to an analysis and
comparison of information with the assumptions of the activated model or models, which implies the
establecimiento de relaciones entre varios modelos o entre un modelo y unos datos. Así, en Conocimiento

14
 [Link]
OFINFORMATIONANDMAKINGINFERENCES

Analysis of information and making inferences

Analysis and comparison of information. 1. Analysis of cases and examples of a

model.
2. Establishing relationships between model and
information.

Making inferences. 1. Predictive inferences.

2. Causal inferences.
3. Deductive inferences.

Research. Planning.
2. Design.
3. Formulation of hypotheses.
4. Execution.
5. Hypothesis testing.
6. Evaluation of results.

students in Primary are asked for an 'analysis of the functioning of electrical circuits from the Natural Environment
"simple" and the Secondary School students in Natural Sciences are asked for an "analysis of some
appliances and machines for everyday use, comparing their consumption and performance.” In the same vein, in
Primary Social Sciences requires, for example, 'a critical analysis of the image of man and of the
"woman in advertising," while in Secondary in this same area it is considered necessary to conduct an "analysis and
comparison of a brief number of primary sources, pointing out gaps, errors, and contradictions among
them and distinguishing between objective data and opinion judgment.
In other cases, the analysis takes the explicit form of a predictive inference when requested.
that from a given model or situation one draws conclusions regarding its probable consequences.
A procedure of this kind is 'the analysis of the repercussions of certain practices and activities.
Social studies on development and health in Primary Natural Environment Knowledge, or the prediction of the
evolution of a certain ecosystem in the presence of some type of alteration
Nature of Secondary Education, or 'the analysis of some advertising messages offered by different media'
communication (posters, lighted signs, radio, TV, etc.) and its impact on consumption in Knowledge
of the Social Media in Primary, or in the area of Mathematics, makes formulations of conjectures about the
behavior of a population according to the results related to a sample of it,
Secondary.
In other cases, it is more about making causal inferences, rather than predicting
consequences, are directed towards finding the causes of information, that is, to the explanation of the
same. For example, in Secondary Natural Sciences, the "emission of hypotheses about the
movement of the planets and the Sun"; or, in Social Sciences, also in Secondary, to "explanation of
certain actions, beliefs, customs, etc., of individuals and groups belonging to different times than the
our, considering personal circumstances and collective mentalities,” or the “analysis of the causes
what provoke situations of marginalization and social injustice due to sex, race or others in Primary.
Finally, there would be deductive inferences, such as the 'use of the backward method' or
assume the problem solved to tackle geometric problems in the area of Mathematics
Secondary.

15
 In a joint manner, the previous procedures of analysis and inference can be included
generically in more general research activities, in which they can be recognized
traditional phases of planning, design, hypothesis formulation, execution of the experiment,
contrasting the hypotheses and evaluating the results obtained. This procedural cycle is usual
in Natural Sciences (see small investigations in the classification of problems in the area of
Natural Sciences, in chapter 3), where the 'planning and execution of
experiences to study the physical properties and characteristics of air, water, rocks, and minerals
in Primary, or the 'design and execution of experiments with hypothesis issuance and variable control, to
determine the factors on which certain magnitudes depend, such as pressure or thrust force
due to fluids" in Secondary; but also with its own characteristics in Social Sciences, where
It is suggested, for example, the 'conducting of simulated studies or research based on a not very large number
elevated from various sources of information appropriately selected by the teacher" in Secondary or
the planning and execution of simple experiences related to the organization of an activity or a
"domestic journey" in Primary; or in the case of the area of Mathematics, where for example, it is required the
formulation and verification of conjectures about the rule that follows a series of numbers
Primary, or the 'formulation and verification of conjectures about the behavior of random phenomena'
"simple" in the case of Secondary.
But the result of the set of procedures required for the implementation of a thought
hypothetical-deductive, like happens with the rest of the procedural contents, depends on the
conceptual knowledge of students and the effectiveness in the use of other procedures that we still
remain to be analyzed, related to the understanding and communication of information.

Understanding and conceptual organization of information

Although the ability to understand and organize depends primarily on knowledge.

available concepts can be facilitated if appropriate procedures are used. The research
about comprehension has highlighted in recent years how training in certain procedures
or strategies can facilitate the comprehension of texts of diverse nature, or how training in
conceptual information organization techniques help with understanding. Table 5.5 summarizes some.
of these procedures.
A first group of procedures would be directly related to understanding of the
speech, both written and oral. Although some of these procedures play a special role
in areas of the curriculum such as Language, they are essential in the problem-solving process (for example, in
the understanding of the problem statement or the information gathered for solving the problem).
Among these contents, the identification of the specific characteristics of each type of text would be included and/or
speech, distinguishing them from each other: for example, in Secondary Social Sciences, 'distinction between sources'
primary and secondary or historiographical sources, and their different use and value for the knowledge of the past," or that of
integrate information from various texts or oral sources, in Natural Environment Knowledge of
Primary: 'preparation of simple reports on animals and plants, integrating diverse information'
(observations, book consultation, etc.)
synthesis from different types of primary and secondary sources of diverse nature..." Obviously, in
In some cases, this integration of different discourses, or even languages, will be based on the use of
interpretation procedures, such as those described above (for example, in Social Sciences of
Secondary "...integrative synthesis of information of very different nature (maps and plans, images and
photographs, statistical data, charts, articles, reports, and scientific and literary texts, etc.)

[Link]
ANDCONCEPTUALORGANIZATIONOFINFORMATION

Understanding and conceptual organization of information

16
 Understanding of speech Differentiation of types of discourse.
(written/oral). 2. Identification of text structures.
3. Differentiation of main and secondary ideas.
4. Understanding of meaning.
5. Integration of information from various texts or sources.

Establishment of relationships Relationship of various causal factors in the explanation of the

conceptual. information.
Integration of information from various causal factors
for the explanation of a phenomenon.
3. Differentiation between different levels of analysis of a
phenomenon.
4. Analysis and comparison of various explanations of the same
phenomenon.

Conceptual organization. 1. Classification.

2. Establecimiento de relaciones jerárquicas.
3. Use of conceptual maps, semantic networks...

Another set of procedures would be aimed at establishing conceptual relationships that

giving meaning to information. As is known, the significance of information depends on the
potential relationships that can be established between that information and other prior knowledge. By
the more the establishment of conceptual relationships is favored, the easier the solution will be made
problems as a form of learning and, hence, for the student to recognize a situation as problematic
(chapter 3). Thus, it is necessary to practice the integration of various causal factors to achieve a
complex explanation of a phenomenon (for example, in Secondary Social Sciences, "integrate into a
global perspective of geographic study the different sectorial analyses (physical, demographic, economic,
cultural, etc.) carried out on a specific territory (region, autonomous community, state, etc.).
Similarly, the procedures used in the analysis of the same fact would also be included in this section.
from different perspectives and in the comparison of models or alternative explanations for the same
fact. Thus, in Secondary Natural Sciences, it proposes the 'analysis and comparison of the
the most important models of the Universe that Humanity has developed throughout History; in
Knowledge of the Social Environment in Primary, the 'comparison of two landscapes based on information.
various (maps, photographs, and texts), or in Secondary Social Sciences, the "analysis and interpretation of
some works of art from different perspectives (for example, sociological, iconographic...) using
of various information about the historical context, the author, the audience, etc.
This establishment of connections and relationships is completed by the use of procedures.
intended to promote the conceptual organization of knowledge in the student's mind. This type
Techniques or strategies occupy a prominent place in some training programs and
intellectual enrichment, in the form of concept maps, knowledge networks, etc.
On the other hand, its appearance among the curriculum contents is more occasional, appearing in the
most basic forms of classification and hierarchization, such as the 'classification of commonly used materials'
by its origin, properties, and applications" in Knowledge of the Natural Environment for Primary, or "classification and
identification of animals and plants based on the data collected in the field..." in Science of
Nature of Secondary, or the 'classification of the different types of road signage: road markings, signs
"vertical and bright" in Social Studies for Primary; or in the area of Mathematics of
Secondary, the 'classification of sets of numbers and construction of numerical series according to
a given rule.

17
Communication of information

One last type of procedures that must be trained are those related to transmission and
communication of information, using various types of expressive resources, whether oral or written,
graphics or of another nature. These are undoubtedly essential procedures. It is enough to realize that
every evaluation of student learning (not only of their procedures but also of their concepts
and attitudes) is mediated or determined by the use they make of certain expressive means and of
communication. However, written expression, being essential, does not exhaust all the procedures of
communication required from students, summarized in table 5.6., p. 202.
An important part of communication is carried out through oral expression procedures.
whose improvement requires, among other skills, planning and script writing, the

[Link]
FROMTHEINFORMATION

Communication of information

Oral expression. Planning and scriptwriting.

2. Differentiation between types of exhibitions.
3. Analysis of the adequacy of the exhibition.
4. Exhibition (use of expressive techniques and resources).
5. Response to questions.
6. Justification and defense of one’s own opinion.

Written expression. Planning and script development.

2. Use of expression techniques: summaries, outlines,
reports...
3. Differentiation between the various types of written expression.
4. Analysis of the adequacy of the written text.
5. Presentation and defense of one's own opinion.

Other types of expression. 1. Use of resources andGraphs: maps, tables, diagrams...

Techniques New technologies: computer
of expression video, photography...

mastery of certain expressive resources or the justification and argumentation of one's own opinions. Thus,
for example, in Mathematics the Primary student is required to provide the 'oral explanation of the process followed in the
execution of calculations and in the resolution of numerical problems." There are also abundant examples of
these procedures in the area of Social Sciences, such as the "mastery of the rules of operation of the
assembly (speaking turns, expression of opinions, extraction of conclusions, roles of moderator and
secretary, etc.) as an instrument of participation in collective decision-making and conflict resolution
in primary school, or the 'preparation and conducting of debates on current controversial issues
politics, exposing opinions and personal judgments with reasoned arguments and sufficiently supported in the
"data" in Secondary. This example reveals the close connection of expressive resources with the rest of the
described procedures; a relationship of interdependence, as it is not only about verbal expression
it depends on the quality of the arguments developed, but also on the fact that they are undoubtedly encouraged
due to the need to express them.

18
 This same interdependence can also be observed in the expression procedures.
writing, which also requires planning, the preparation of scripts and summaries, the use of various
expressive techniques or the differentiation between various types of written production. Thus, to the students of
In Primary Education in Natural Environment Knowledge, they are asked to 'prepare simple reports on
animals and plants" and in Social Environment Knowledge, the "preparation of questionnaires and conducting
interviews to gather direct testimonies about past events.
But although oral and written language encompasses a large part of expressive procedures or of
presentation of information, there are other types of expression normally required in activities
school and everyday. Thus, the use of graphic procedures, such as maps, tables, or diagrams, is a
very common resource in Social Sciences (for example, in Primary education, the 'making of models' is required,
sketches and drawings of the landscape", and in Secondary the "clear and orderly presentation of work, combining
suitably different forms of expression, particularly maps, charts, and images) or in Mathematics
(the "creation of statistical graphs with few data related to family situations" in
Primary, or the "creation of frequency tables and graphs to represent behavior of
random phenomena" in Secondary). In addition, any of the types of expression mentioned can
produced through new systems and communicative technologies. For example, in Social Sciences of
Secondary school insists that students produce 'audiovisual documents.'
In any case, the existence of various expressive procedures makes their integration necessary in the
communication of information. Thus, for example, in Secondary Mathematics, students are required to
construction of graphs from statistical and functional tables, formulas, and descriptions
verbal statements of a problem, choosing in each case the type of graph and means of representation that is most appropriate;
and in the area of Social Sciences, the 'clear and organized presentation of work' is considered necessary.
using and combining different forms of expression (oral presentation, reports, newspaper articles,
audiovisual documents, murals, etc.). This agile and flexible use of various presentation formats of the
information refers again to the decoding processes that we were analyzing when describing the
interpretation procedures a few pages back, once again showing that the need to establish
a taxonomy of procedures should not be confused with a conceptual separation or a
compartmentalization of them. Ultimately, the criterion on which this is established
Classification is the function that each procedure –or sequence of actions– has within learning.
We have already seen before that the same task, and the same sequence of actions, can be directed
different goals (for example, information can be selected to memorize it or to criticize it).
Ultimately, the use that the student makes of the acquired procedures will determine whether those
procedures are functional to solve problems or simply to complete exercises.
We will conclude this chapter, and with it this work, by making some considerations on how it can
to ensure that students not only acquire some of the skills throughout Mandatory Education
procedures that we have described but also be able to use them in a strategic way, and not
only technical, when facing school and non-school tasks.

Theteachingofproblem-solving

Although throughout the various chapters of the book considerations have been made about teaching
From problem-solving, there have been some recurring, almost obsessive themes that deserve some notes.
finals. Here we will address three of those issues. One of them refers to the slippery distinction
between exercises and problems: When is a student doing an exercise and when a problem? Part of
The answer will be related to a second question: What is the role of a teacher in education?
of problem-solving? Taking into account the essentially procedural nature of the solution of
problems, this role differs in some aspects from traditional teaching, which focuses on the transmission of
a verbal knowledge. But that role - and the relative importance of the exercises and problems - must
to consider and nuance it also based on the stage of Mandatory Education we are in
centered. Are there differences in the teaching of problem solving between Primary Education and the
Secondary? Although all these questions - as could not be otherwise in a book dedicated to the solution of

19
problems - they are open problems, to which the reader will undoubtedly seek their own solutions, some
Final considerations can serve as guidance for those responses.

On how to pose problems and not just exercises

Both in chapter 1 and in the specific context of each area of the curriculum in the chapters
It has been pointed out repeatedly that the distinction between an exercise and a problem is not a
simple nor easy task. In fact, more than a dichotomy it is a continuum that would range from tasks
merely reproductive, in which the student is asked to exercise a technique or skill already learned, to
those more open tasks, in which the student faces a question they must seek
response without knowing exactly the means to achieve it, or has several possible alternatives that
needs to explore.
In reality, a good part of the most significant school tasks can contain both elements
of exercise as of problem. To be more precise, as we have seen earlier, every problem usually
to require for its strategic solution the exercise of previously acquired skills. But the opposite
It is not usually true: a task that can be solved in a reproductive way or as an exercise will not pose
usually a problem for the student.
This relative and mobile character of the boundary between exercises and problems is connected with the fact
that a problem only exists for those who take it as such. The same task can constitute a
a problem for one student is just an exercise for another; or even for the same student, in two
At different moments, the same task can be approached in different ways. The fact that a task can become a
the problem will depend not only on the student's prior knowledge, both conceptual and
procedural, but also of their attitude towards the task. One only sees a problem if they are willing to assume
that there is a problem, that is, that there is a distance between what we know and what we want to know and that
that distance deserves the effort to be traveled.
But whether a task is accepted as a problem does not only depend on the students. It depends
also to a large extent on how the task is presented and how the teacher manages it in the classroom. The same
homework, taken from any textbook, can be perceived by students as an exercise or as a
problem, depending on how they perceive its functionality within learning, based on the way in
that the teacher presents it, guides its solution and evaluates it. Although infallible criteria cannot be given for
generate problem scenarios and avoid the mechanization of exercises by students, the table
5.1. Summarize twelve criteria that can be considered to reduce the likelihood of problems with
Professor, only exercises for the students. These criteria must be taken into account when formulating the
problem as during the solution process by the students and in the evaluation that is carried out of the
same.
The fundamental idea underlying these criteria is that the student will tend to perceive more the
tasks as problems to the extent that they become unpredictable and novel. It is the change, the break.
from the routine that hinders the comfortable exercise of the acquired habit. If we want students to accept the
tasks as real problems, we must avoid that very common feeling for them that 'if today is
Thursday and this class is Mathematics, so the problem is a rule of three." The realization of the
activities and tasks in very defined and closed contexts –for example, as illustration or application of the
concepts explained in a given topic - causes students to mechanically carry out activities without
overthinking too much. They don't need to reflect on what they are doing, because they do 'what they
always” this week and in Math class: “rule of three problems.”
In order for there to be real problems that force the student to make decisions, plan, and resort to
Based on their baggage of acquired concepts and procedures, it is necessary for the tasks to be open, different from one another.
of others, that is, unpredictable. A problem is always a situation that is surprising in some way.
The execution of routine activities, which always require a similar solution process, if not
identical, hardly generates problems. No strategies are needed to solve tasks that one can
to do it mechanically. When we drive the car, we write in our usual word processor.
We prepared one of our favorite and most experimented dishes, we can hardly say that
we are solving a problem. The problem actually arises when the car won't start, the computer

20
It does something strange or we are missing one of the essential ingredients and we have to think about how to substitute it. Like
the authors of Gestalt showed (see chapter 1), the problems always contain new elements,
unexpected events that require a reorganization of the present elements.

TABLE 5.1. SOME CRITERIA THAT ALLOW THE CONVERSION OF SCHOOL TASKS
IN PROBLEMS INSTEAD OF SIMPLE EXERCISES

In the problem statement

1. Raise open tasks that allow for multiple possible solutions and even several solutions.
possible, avoiding closed tasks.
2. Modify the format or definition of the problems, preventing the student from identifying a form.
of presentation with a type of problem.
3. Diversify the contexts in which the application of the same strategy is proposed, making it so that
the student works on the same types of problems at different points in the curriculum and before
different conceptual contents.
4. Present tasks not only in an academic format but also in everyday scenarios and
meaningful for the student, seeking for the student to establish connections between both types
of situations.
5. Adapt the definition of the problem, the questions, and the information provided to the objectives.
of the task, using, at different times, more or less open formats, depending on those
same objectives.
6. Use problems for various purposes during the development or teaching sequence of a topic.
avoiding that practical tasks appear as illustration, demonstration or exemplification of
some content previously presented to the student.

During the solution of the problem

7. Get the student used to making their own decisions about the solution process, as well as to
reflect on that process, granting it increasing autonomy in that decision-making process
decisions.
8. Foster cooperation among students in completing tasks, but also
encourage discussion and diverse viewpoints that require exploring the space of
problem to confront alternative solutions or pathways to solutions.
9. Provide students with the information they need during the problem-solving process.
carrying out a support role, aimed more at asking questions or encouraging students to
habit of questioning rather than answering the students' questions.

In the assessment of the problem

10. Evaluate the problem-solving processes followed by the student more than the final correction.
response obtained. That is, to evaluate more than to correct.
11. Especially value the extent to which that resolution process involves prior planning,
a reflection during the completion of the task and a self-evaluation by the student of the
followed process.
12. Value the reflection and depth of the solutions achieved by the students and not the speed.
with which they are obtained.

21
 Each of the criteria presented in table 5.1, p. 207, and some others that undoubtedly the very
The reader will be able to add on their own, it is aimed at encouraging the assumption of school tasks as
problems. However, it is also important to note that not all school tasks have
It is necessary to present a problem to the student. Exercises are also necessary. In fact, as
It has been mentioned that the use of strategies is based on the mastery of techniques previously practiced. When
some of those techniques are instrumental - such as, for example, calculation skills or abilities
literacy - it may be necessary to have an overlearning of the same, based on massive practice
continued. This is especially necessary in the case of certain basic skills, such as those mentioned,
which make up a good part of the Primary Education curriculum (see later for some differences)
between this and Secondary in this regard).
Now then, even in the case of those skills that students must practice extensively, there is a need to
be cautious about its use and school abuse. In general, it does not seem advisable for students to associate,
from a very early age, school activity with a routine exercise, imposed from outside, on the
that it is not necessary to think, but only to follow the instructions. Even if skills need to be exercised, good
part of that exercise can take place in the context of meaningful tasks that constitute genuine
problems for students. A good balance between exercises and problems can help students not
not only to consolidate their skills but also to know their limits, differentiating familiar situations,
already practiced, of the new and unknown.
Additionally, this balance can also be very important in relation to motivation.
students. Obviously, no matter how necessary it is, the routine application of skills is not too
Interesting, as its abuse can have serious effects on students' motivation. It is necessary
to compensate for the necessary exercise of those instrumental skills, sometimes not very appealing in itself,
with its use in meaningful and, if possible, problematic contexts.
Finally, in the case of being essential for a massive practice of certain skills or techniques,
it is advisable that this practice be distributed rather than intensive. It is more effective, not only for motivation.
but for the learning itself, so that the practice is distributed in the general context of the activities of
learning, instead of focusing it on a few specific sessions and considering it as already "known" or mastered.
It is proven that distributed practice, continued over time, is more efficient than exercise.
intensive (for example, BADDELEY, 1982).
Ultimately, keeping as the primary objective teaching students to solve problems, it is
I need a balance between exercising and problem-solving, avoiding at all costs.
moment to turn the exercises into an end in itself and that the abuse of them makes the students
they face all tasks –including those that we conceive as true problems– as if
were repetitive exercises. In addition to taking into account the criteria presented in table 5.1., one
requires an adequate sequencing of procedural content that facilitates skills and
necessary strategies to solve problems, as well as specific pedagogical help during the
solution process. It is here where, beyond the concrete tasks, the teacher's work takes on a
essential dimension.

Teaching problem-solving: from players to coaches

An easy analogy can help us understand the difference for the student between doing a
exercise and solve a problem, or if you prefer, between applying a technique and a strategy. Sports
they tend to be activities that, practiced at a certain level of efficiency, require notable doses of both
technical technique as strategy. Technical training usually consists of the exercise of procedures - in this
case motors - which end up being automated, so that they are carried out quickly, without demand
attentionally and very effectively. But in addition to a high technical mastery on the part of the players, the sport
competitive requires a strategic use of those techniques, usually entrusted to the coach. It is about
to apply those techniques in a flexible manner, adapted to the needs of that situation or 'game'
concrete. Similarly, in problem-solving and in learning in general, there would be some
techniques that should be used flexibly or strategically, adapted to the demands of the task. They

22
understand well why strategies are only useful when the task is changing; they are team sports,
those in which opponents and even their own teammates can change the conditions of
application of skills, those that require greater doses of strategy. The same happens with the solution
of problems.
But, just as happens in sports, the initial distribution of roles between coach and players must
to conclude in school learning as it implies an internalization or adoption of the strategy by the
own players/students. If initially it is the teacher/coach who has the strategic control of the
tasks that students complete as mere exercises, little by little that control should be transferred to
The students themselves, who must learn to strategically use their own techniques (Pozo, 1990).
Table 5.7 attempts to summarize in some way the process of transferring control of the tasks to the
students.
Initially (phase 1) the students are not able to execute, neither alone nor with external help or support,
the techniques necessary to solve a problem (for example, calculating the area of a square); it is
necesario entrenarles en el uso de la técnica, que acaban por dominar sireciben ayuda o control externo, pero
that they are not able to execute without guidance on an open task. It is the phase of technical mastery (phase 2): the
The student is a good player but is not able to put his skills into action when the teacher (or the book)
he is not by his side, telling him what to do. It is essential for the student to learn to confront tasks.
more open ones, that require reflection and decision-making on their part, so that they begin to take on the
control of their own problem-solving process (phase 3); gradually external support (from the teacher) will become unnecessary
or of the book: the student can adopt various strategies to face different types of problems.
This strategic domain of the problems can be complemented with a phase of expert mastery - normally
removed from the possibilities and interests of the students in Compulsory Education – in which, due to its own
In practice, the strategies are automated again, giving rise to new learning possibilities.

[Link]

Phases Internal control External control Execution

Novice. Impossible. Impossible. Zero.

2. Technical domain. Impossible. Possible and necessary. Regular or good.
3. Strategic domain. Possible and necessary. Unnecessary. Good or average.
4. Expert. Possible but unnecessary. Unnecessary. Very good and effective.

The reader familiar with educational psychology will have easily identified this process of
internalization of the student strategies as another example of educational intervention in the area of
next development of the student, following the terminology of VYGOTSKY. Although here we cannot
expanding on the development of this concept would highlight the decisive role of teachers in the
instruction, consolidation, and independent use of procedures by the students (GONZALO,
1993). The idea would be to progressively turn students into self-coaches, but to
Hello, tasks and problems need to be carefully designed so that they become increasingly more
open, requiring them not only to execute the strategy but also to decide on it and evaluate it. In other
words, taking the classic problem-solving model of POLYA (see chapter l), in a
At first, the teacher would assume responsibility for the decisions of several phases (defining the problem,
choose the strategy, evaluate it) but progressively I would be yielding control of those phases to the ones themselves
students, until they were able to complete the entire solution process by themselves, without help
externa.
This sequence of procedural knowledge construction, although it should not be taken as
something rigid or inflexible, as the mentioned phases may possibly overlap and reconstruct upon each other
others provide useful guidance for the sequencing of problem-solving as content of the
curriculum. This sequencing has a dual aspect, the organization of content within a

23
didactic unit (microsequences) and the long-term or vertical planning of these contents in the
Compulsory Education (macro-sequences).

The problem solving in Primary Education and in Secondary Education

In this last case, although the exercise and the problem should not be conceived as two successive phases,
but as overlapping phases in continuous interaction, obviously between Primary Education and the
In Secondary Education, there will be differences not only in the complexity of the problems posed, but also
due to the relative importance of exercises and problems in one stage and another. Undoubtedly, in Primary Education
there is an important component of skills training, whose automation is
indispensable for those skills to be functional later in high school. Even if they are taken into account
All the cautions and considerations mentioned above regarding the organization of the exercises
practical and attempts to prevent them from becoming tasks without meaning and interest for the students, the truth is that
this technical exercise will be basic for students to later use those techniques as
part of the necessary strategies to tackle more complex problems in Secondary Education.
Nonetheless, the importance of technical training in Primary Education is not inconsistent with
el inicio de la solución de problemas durante esa misma etapa. Aunque, obviamente, el control estratégico que
students' ability to take control of their own learning is still limited at these ages and requires more
external support, it would be about gradually inducing them to habits and attitudes directed towards the solution of
problems. Otherwise, if the practical activities are merely application exercises from the beginning,
It will then become extremely difficult to change those acquired habits, so students will resist.
to take control, to reflect and make decisions on how to face the problem and will always wait
let someone –the teacher or the book– simplify the task for them and reduce it once again to a simple exercise
of application.
Another important feature of problem-solving in Primary Education is that, due to its nature
organization of this stage, the problems should start from more global, less disciplinary approaches,
than in secondary education. In fact, one objective of Primary Education would be precisely to help students to
differentiate between various types of problems, considering the content of the 'area' to which they belong.
The globalization of problems should not be at odds with the beginning of differentiation between different types.
of questions or ways to answer them. Obviously, as the curriculum adopts area structures or
of discipline, as happens in secondary education, the conceptual contents, to the extent that they are more specific
of the subjects, they play a greater organizing role in the curriculum, to the detriment of the
procedures.
Therefore, Primary Education must serve to prepare the student for that differentiation,
providing techniques and strategies of a general or relatively transferable nature (for example, of
understanding of texts or calculations), but also introducing them to the discrimination of types of problems.
different, which will require different techniques and problem-solving strategies. In this way, in Knowledge of
Half of the students should recognize the difference between social problems (chapter 4) and the problems
natural (chapter 3), as well as the relationship between the two.
Ultimately, if one of the objectives of including problem-solving in the curriculum
is to help students solve not only school problems but also everyday ones, it is necessary that the
Students acquire, along with a good set of techniques and strategies, habits to use them in situations.
open, far away or temporarily oblivious to the teacher's gaze. And for that use to be effective, they must
learn not only when they should use a strategy, but also to discern when they should not use it
Thus, the globalization on which Primary Education is based must have as its goal the
differentiation or discrimination between contexts of knowledge application, based on various criteria including
the area of knowledge to which the problem corresponds. But inversely, the disciplinary specialization that
it begins to be established in Secondary Education must be balanced, to be educationally
effective, with a certain integration or coordination between the contents of the various areas, especially
When we talk about procedural contents, which, by their very nature, tend to be less specific.
or more transferable than conceptual contents. After all, everyday life, unlike the classroom,

24
it is not compartmentalized into areas of knowledge. It is up to oneself to establish the differences in the
treatment required for each type of problems.

25
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