Thomas J.

Odhiambo Afullo
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kwazulu-Natal,
Durban 4000, South Africa.
E-mail: afullot@[Link]; Tel: +27-31-260 2713;
Fax: +27-31-260 2740

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 1

ENEL2FT FIELD THEORY
REFERENCES
1. M.N. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics,
Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-510368-
8.
2. N.N. Rao: Elements of Engineering
Electromagnetics, Prectice-Hall, 1991, ISBN:0-13-
251604-7.
3. P. Lorrain, D. Corson: Electromagnetic Fields
and Waves, W.H. Freeman & Co, 1970, ISBN: 0-
7167-0330-0.
4. David T. Thomas: Engineering
Electromagnetics, Pergamon Press, ISBN: 08-
016778-0.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 2
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
 The study of electrostatics begins by investigating two
fundamental laws: Coulomb’s law and Gauss’s law.
 Although Coulomb’s law is applicable in finding the electric
field due to any charge configuration, it is easier to use
Gauss’s law when charge distribution is symmetrical.
 Coulomb’s law is an experimental law formulated in 1785
by the French colonel, Charles Coulomb.
 It deals with the force a point charge exerts on another
point charge.
 By a point charge is meant a charge that is located on a
body whose dimensions are much smaller than other
relevant dimensions.
 For example, the collection of electric charges on a pinhead
may be regarded as a point charge.
 Charges are generally measured in Coulombs (C).
 One Coulomb is approximately equal to 6x1018 electrons; it
is a very large unit of charge because the charge of an
electron is -1.6019x10-19 C.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 3
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
 Coulomb’s law states that the force F between two point
charges Q1 and Q2 is:
 a) Along the line joining the charges
 b) Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the charges
 c) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R
between them.
 Mathematically, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:
kQ1Q2
F=
R2
 Here, k is the proportionality constant.
 In SI units, charges Q1 and Q2 are in coulombs (C), the
distance R is in metres, and the force F is in newtons (N).
 A constant ε o is defined as the permittivity of free space
(in farads/metre).

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 4

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
 The constant k is defined
1 as:
k= m/ F
4πε o
10−9
εo = ≈ 8.854 x10−12 F / m
36π

 Then the equation of force becomes:

QQ
F = 1 22
4πε o R

 If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having

position vectors r1 and r2, respectively,
Q1Q2 then the force
F12 on Q2 due to Q1 is F12 =
given aˆ12
4πεby:
R2 o

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 5

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
F21
Q1
R12
Q2
F12

origin

 Where:    
R12 = r2 − r1; R = R12

R12
aˆ12 = 
R12

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 6

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
 We may re-write Coulomb’s equation as:
 
 Q1Q2  Q1Q2 ( r2 − r1 )
F12 = R =
3 12  3
4πε o R 4πε o r2 − r1
 Also note that:
 
F21 = − F12

 It noted that like charges (charges of the same sign)

repel each other, while unlike charges attract.
 The distance R between the two charged bodies Q1 and
Q2 must be large compared with the linear dimensions of
the bodies.
 Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).
 The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into account.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 7

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW
 If there are more than two point charges, we can use the
principle of superposition to determine the force on a
particular charge.
 The principle states that if there are N charges Q1, Q2,
..,QN located respectively at points with position vectors
r1,r2,..,r, the resultant force F on a charge Q located at
point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by
each of the charges  Q1, Q2, ..,Q
 N. Hence: 
 QQ1 ( r − r1 ) QQ2 ( r − r2 ) QQN ( r − rN )
F=  3 +  3 + .. +   3
4πε r − r1 4πε r − r2 4πε r − rN
 
 Q N Qk ( r − rk )
F= ∑
4πε o k =1 r − rk 3

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 8

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW: ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
 We define the electric field intensity or electric field
strength as the force per unit charge when placed in
the electric field.
 That is:  1 
E= F
Q

 Thus the electric field intensity is in the direction of the

force F and is measured in Volts/metre.
 The electric field intensity at point r due to a point
charge located at r1 is obtained as:
 
 Q  Q( r − r1 )
E= R=  3
4πε o R 3
4πε o r − r1

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 9

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 COULOMB’S LAW: ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
 For N point charges Q1,Q2,..,QN located at positions
r1,r2,..,rN, the electric field intensity at point r is obtained
as:
 Q1 ( r − r1 )    
Q2 ( r − r2 ) QN ( r − rN )
E=  3 +   3 + .. +   3
4πε r − r1 4πε r − r2 4πε r − rN
 
 1 N Qk ( r − rk )
E= ∑
4πε o k =1 r − rk 3

 Example:
 Point charges of 2mC and 4mC are located at (3,2,1) and
(-1,-2,-3), respectively. Calculate the electric force on a
10 nC charge located at (0,2,4). Also calculate the
electric field intensity at that point.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 10

 ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE FIELDS
TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE
DISTRIBUTIONS
 So far, we have only considered forces and electric fields due
to point charges, which are essentially charges occupying very
small physical space.
 At a macroscopic scale, we can disregard the discrete nature of
the charge distribution and treat the net charge contained in
an elemental volume ∆v as if it were uniformly distributed
within it. ∆q dq
ρ v = lim = (C / m3 )
 Accordingly, we define∆vthe→0 ∆volume
v dv charge density as:

 Where ∆q is the charge contained in ∆v. The variation of ρ v

with spatial location is = ∫ ρ v dv Coulombs
Q called its spatial distribution. The
total charge contained inv volume v is given by:

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 11

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE
DISTRIBUTIONS
 In some cases, particularly when dealing with conductors,
electric charge may be distributed across the surface of a
material, in which case the relevant quantity of interest is
ρ = lim ρ s=, defined as:
the surface charge density, ∆q dq
s
∆s →0 ∆s ds

 Where ∆q is the charge present across an elemental

surface area ∆s. Similarly, if the charge is distributed along
a line, we characterize the distribution in terms of the line
∆q dq
ρ =
charge density ρ l, defined
l lim =
as: ( C / m)
∆l →0 ∆l dl

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 12

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE
DISTRIBUTIONS
 The electric field intensity due to each of the charge
distributions ρ l,ρ s,and ρ v may be regarded as the
summation of the field distributed by the numerous point
charges making up the charge distribution.
 ρl dl
 Thus we replace Q in the E =equations
∫ rˆ for E, and integrating,
we get: 4πε o R 2

 ρ ds
E = ∫ s 2 rˆ
4πε o R
 ρ dv
E = ∫ v 2 rˆ
4πε o R

 We shall now apply these formulas to specific charge

distributions.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 13

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE
DISTRIBUTIONS – AN INFINITE LINE CHARGE

 Consider a line charge with a uniform charge density ρ L

extending from -∞ to +∞ along the z-axis, as shown
below.
dz
 r̂
α
R − ẑ
z âR
α r̂
Infinite r 
line charge dE

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 14

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE LINE
CHARGE
 The charge element dQ associated with element dz of
the line is: dQ = ρ L dz

 The electric field intensity at point P a distance r from

 ρ L dz ρ L dz 
3 ρLdz is given by:
= aˆ =
the line, due to thedEelemental
2 R charge
R
4πε o R 4πε o R

R 
⇒ aˆ R = ; R = R
R

R = r 2 + z 2 ; z = r tan α ⇒ R = r 2 + r 2 tan 2 α = r secα

 From geometry,
dz d we obtain:
d  sin α 
=r tan α = r   = r sec 2
α ⇒ dz = r sec 2
αdα
dα dα dα  cosα 

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 15

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE LINE
CHARGE
 Also,
aˆ R = for
rˆ costhe
α − zˆunit
sin α vector we have:
 ρ L  ( rˆ cosα − zˆ sin α ) r sec 2 αdα  ρL
∴ dE =   = [ ( rˆ cosα − zˆ sin α ) dα ]
4πε o  r sec α
2 2
 4πε o r

 If we now integrate over the entire line, then α varies

from
 –π/2
ρ πto
/ 2 +π/2 as z variesρfrom -∞ to +∞; thus:
E= L
∫ ( rˆ cosα − zˆ sin α ) dα =
4πε o r −π / 2
L
4πε r
{[ rˆ sin α ] π /2
−π / 2 + [ zˆ cosα ]π−π/ 2/ 2 }
o
 ρL
∴E = rˆ
2πε o r

 In normal cylindrical coordinates, the expression

becomes:
 ρL
E= ρˆ
2πε o ρ

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 16

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE LINE
CHARGE
 Alternatively, one can see from the expression for dE
ρ L  ( rˆ cosα − zˆ sin α ) r sec2 αdα 
 that: ρL
dE =  = [ ( rˆ cosα − zˆ sin α ) dα ] = rˆdEr + zˆdEz
4πε o  r sec α
2 2
 4πε o r

 One observes that at the observation point P, the

contribution to Ez due to the element dz at point +z on
the line charge is cancelled by the contribution due to
E z = 0; ⇒ E = rˆEr + zˆE z = rˆEr
the element dz at position –z along the line charge.
Therefore, we could just conclude that:

We shall useElectrostatic
 Field Theory
ENEL2FT a similar Fieldsargument for surface charge. 17
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CIRCULAR RING OF
CHARGE

 z ẑ âR
dE  α
αR
h − ρ̂
Circular ring y
of charge ϕ
ρ
dl
x
 Consider a circular ring of charge of radius ρ, having
uniform charge density ρ l C/m. The ring is placed on the
x-y plane.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 18

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CIRCULAR RING OF
CHARGE
 We are required to determine the total electric field at
the point P along the z-axis, located a height h above the
x-y plane.
 Consider an elemental length dl on the ring. The electric
 this
field arising from dQ elemental charge is given by:
dE = aˆ 2 R
4πε o R
dQ = ρ L dl = ρ L ( ρdϕ )

R = ρ 2 + h 2 ; aˆ R = − ρˆ sin α + zˆ cosα
 ρ L ( ρdϕ )
∴ dE = ( − ρˆ sin α + zˆ cosα )

(
4πε o ρ + h
2 2
)
⇒ dE = ρˆdE ρ + zˆdE z

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 19

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CIRCULAR RING OF
CHARGE
 Thus dE has both a z-component and a ρ−component.
 However, from symmetry considerations, for every
element dl in the direction ρ giving rise to an elemental
field strength dEρ, there is a corresponding opposite
element –dl giving rise to an opposite elemental electric
field strength –dEρ. Therefore the ρ components of dE
cancel; thisρˆdE
implies
= ⇒
 dE hasρ Lonly
that= =
( ρdϕ )a z-component.
( zˆ cosα )
4πε o ( ρ 2 + h 2 )
ρ 0, d E z
ˆdE z
Thus:
 2π ρ L ( zˆ cosα )( ρdϕ ) ρ L ( zˆρ cosα )
E= ∫ =
0 (
4πε o ρ + h
2 2
)
2ε o ρ 2 + h 2 ( )

 ρ L ( zˆρ cosα ) zˆρhρ L zˆ ( 2πρρ L ) h zˆQh

E=
 Simplifying, we = obtain: = =
( ) (
2ε o ρ 2 + h 2 2ε o ρ 2 + h 2 ) 3/ 2
(
4πε o ρ + h
2
)
2 3/ 2
(
4πε o ρ + h
2
)
2 3/ 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 20

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE SURFACE
CHARGE
 Let us consider an infinite plane sheet of charge in the xy-
plane with uniform surface charge density ρ s C/m2. We are

required to find the electric field intensity due to it
everywhere above thedE sheet.
z

α R âR ẑ
h α
y − ρ̂
ϕ
ρ dϕ dρ

x
dA

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 21

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE SURFACE
CHARGE
 Consider the point P(0,0,h) on the z-axis. The sheet of
surface charge is thus placed a distance h below P. The
charge contribution due to an elemental area dA is
given by: dQ = ρ s dA; dA = ( ρdϕ ) dρ ⇒ dQ = ρ s ( ρdϕ ) dρ


R = R = h 2 + ρ 2 ; ρ = h tan α ; ⇒ R = h 1 + tan 2 α = h secα
 We also derive the following relationships from the
dρ d sin α 
sketch: = h  = h sec 2
α ; ⇒ d ρ = h sec 2
αdα
dα dα  cosα 
aˆ R = zˆ cosα − ρˆ sin α

 dQaˆ R ρ s ( ρdϕdρ ) ρ s  (h tan αdϕ )(h sec 2 αdα )[ zˆ cosα − ρˆ sin α ] 

dE = = aˆ R =  
 Then
4πε o R 2
4πε o R field4πε
the electric 2
intensity
o  arising h 2
from
sec 2
α this 
elemental charge is:

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 22

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE SURFACE
CHARGEdE = ρ s { [ zˆ tan α cosα − ρˆ tan α sin α ] dαdϕ }
4πε o
 ρ s  sin 2 α  
∴ dE =  z
ˆ sin α − ρ
ˆ  d αd ϕ  = zˆdE z + ρˆdE ρ
4πε o  cosα  

 The total electric field is obtained from the integration of

dE over the entire surface. Here, ϕ varies from (0,2π),
while α varied from (0,π/2).
 Note that dE has two components: one, dEz in the z-
direction, and the other is dEρ in the ρ direction.
 For the ρ component of dE, for each value of dEρ , there
is a canceling value, -dEρ , from the opposite element.
Thus theρρ components
2π π / 2
 
cancel
ρ 
each
π /2 other 
out,
ρ and we
= only ∫ ( zˆ sinz-component:
α ) dα  dϕ = s  ∫ ( zˆ sin α ) dα  = s zˆ = zˆE z
s
haveEleft
4πε
∫  the
2ε 2ε
o 0  0  o  0  o

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 23

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO AN INFINITE SURFACE
CHARGE
 For a point located below the charge sheet, the electric
field intensity is:  ρ
E = − zˆ s
2ε o

 If we consider two infinite parallel, oppositely-

charged charge sheets, one with charge density ρ s,
and the other with  opposite charge
ρs  ( − ρs )  density –ρ s C/m 2
, the
total electric fieldE =between
zˆ + − zˆthe two
2ε  2ε 
plates is given by:
o  o 
 ρ
∴ E = zˆ s
εo

 This would therefore be the total electric field between

two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor with
(approximately) infinite dimensions.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 24
 ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY FIELDS
 Let us define a vector field, D, as:
 
D = εE
 Where ε is the electrical permittivity of the medium.
Thus D is independent of the medium. Define the
electric flux, Ψ, as:
 
Ψ = ∫ [Link]

 The electric flux is measured in Coulombs, and therefore

the vector D is called the electric flux density, measured
in C/m2.
 Thus all formulas derived for E from Coulomb’s law can
be used in calculating D, except we have to multiply
those results by εo. Thus for a volume charge
distribution,  ρ dv
D = v aˆ ∫ R
4πR 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 25

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 GAUSS’S LAW
 Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux, Ψ, flowing
out of a closed surface S equals to the total charge
enclosed by the surface.
 That is:  
Ψ = Qenc ⇒ Ψ = ∫S [Link] = Qenc

 Where Qenc=total charge enclosed. 

Q = ∫ ρ v dv ⇒ ∫ [Link] = ∫ ρ v dv
v s v

 Gauss’s law is thus an alternative statement of

Coulomb’s law.
 Gauss’s law provides an easy means of finding E or D for
symmetrical charge distributions such as a point Charge,
an infinite line charge, an infinite surface charge, and a
spherical charge distribution.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 26
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A POINT
CHARGE
 Suppose that a point charge Q is located at the origin.
 To determine the flux density D at a point P, it is seen
that choosing a spherical surface containing P will satisfy
symmetry conditions.
 Thus a spherical surfacez centered at the origin is the
Gaussian surface in this case, as shown below.
P 
D
r
Q y

Gaussian Surface
x

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 27

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A POINT
CHARGE
 Applying Gauss’s law, with a spherical surface as the
Gaussian surface, we
 have: 
Q = ∫ [Link] = ∫ Dr rˆ.dS
V V

dS = rˆ( rdθ )( r sin θdϕ )
π 2π
 
∴ Q = Dr ∫  ∫ r 2 dϕ  sin θdθ = Dr 4πr 2
0 0 
 Q
∴ D = rˆ
4πr 2

 From this, we can determine

   E to Q be:
D = ε o E ⇒ E = rˆ
4ε oπr 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 28

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A LINE CHARGE
 Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge ρL C/m lies
along the z-axis.
 To determine D at a point P a distance ρ from the line,
we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy
symmetry conditions as shown in the figure below.
z
Line charge
ρ L C/m
Gaussian
surface
ρ P
L 
D
y
x
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 29
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A LINE CHARGE
 D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian
surface. Thus, 
D = ρˆDρ

 If we apply Gauss’s law to an arbitrary length L of the

line, we have:
 
Qenc = ρ L L = ∫ [Link]

dS = ρˆ ( ρdϕdz )
∴ Qenc = ρ L L = Dρ 2 ρπL
 ρL  ρL
∴ D = ρˆ ⇒ Eρˆ
2 ρπ 2ε o ρπ
 Note that the evaluation of [Link] on the top and bottom
surfaces of the cylinder is zero since D has no z-
component.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 30
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED SPHERE

Gaussian surface

r a
a
r≤a r
r≥a
 Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge ρ v
C/m3.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 31

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED SPHERE
 To determine D everywhere, we construct Gaussian
surfaces for cases r≤a, and r≥a, separately.
 Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious
that a spherical surface is an appropriate Gaussian
surface.
 For r≤a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical
surface of radius r is:
2π π r
2
Qenc = ∫ ρ v dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ r sin θdrdθdϕ
ϕ = 0θ = 0 r = 0

4πr 3
Qenc = ρv
3

 The total flux is given

  by:2π π 2
Ψ = ∫ [Link] = Dr ∫ ∫ r sin θdθdϕ = Dr 4πr 2 ( )
ϕ =0 θ = 0

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 32

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED SPHERE
 Thus we have:
4πr 3
Ψ = Qenc ⇒ 4πr Dr = 2
ρv
3
 r
∴ D = rˆ , 0 ≤ r ≤ a
3
 For r≥a, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
the entire charge in this case, that is:
2π π a 4πa 3
Qenc = ∫ ρ v dv = ρ v ∫ ∫ ∫ r sin θdrdθdϕ =
2
ρv
ϕ =0 θ =0 r =0 3
 Similarly, the flux is given by:
 
Ψ = ∫ [Link] = 4πr 2 Dr( )

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 33

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED SPHERE
 Hence we obtain,

(
4πr Dr =
2
)
4πa 3
3
ρv
 a3 ρv
⇒ D = rˆ 2 , r ≥ a
3r

 Thus from the foregoing, D is everywhere given by:

 rρ v
rˆ , r≤a
  3
D= 3
rˆ a ρ v , r ≥ a
 3r 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 34

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A AN INFINITE
SHEET OF CHARGE
 Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge with charge
density ρ s C/m2 lying on the z-0 plane (xy-plane).
z

Infinite sheet of D
charge, ρ s C/m2

Area A

x  Gaussian surface
D
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 35
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO A AN INFINITE
SHEET OF CHARGE
 To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box
that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has
two of its sides parallel to the sheet as shown in the
figure.

 As D is normal toDthe
= zˆDzsheet, we have, when applying
Gauss’s law:    
∫ [Link] = Q = Dz  ∫ dS + ∫ dS 
top bottom 

 Note that D has no x- and y- components, hence Dx=0,

Q = ρ s A = Ψ = Dz ( A + A) = 2 ADz
Dy=0. 
 ρs  D ρ
∴ D = zˆ of
 If the top and bottom ⇒the
E = pillbox
= zˆ s each has area A,
2 εo 2ε o
then we get:

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 36

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
 In electric circuits, we work with voltages and
currents.
 The voltage V between two points in the circuit
represents the amount of work, or potential
energy, required to move a unit charge
between the two points.
 In fact, the term “voltage” is a shortened version of
the term “voltage potential” and is the same as
electric potential.
 Even though when we solve a circuit problem we
usually do not consider the electric fields present in
the circuit, in fact it is the existence of an electric field
between two points that gives rise to the voltage
difference between them, such as across a resistor or
capacitor.
 The relationship between the electric field, E, and the
electric potential, V, is the subject of this section.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 37

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
y
dy
 q

E E
x

 Consider the case of a positive charge q in a uniform

electric field 
E = − yˆ E

 Which is parallel to –y direction, as shown in the figure.

 The presence of the field E exerts a force F on the
charge, given by:
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 38
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
 
Fe = qE = − yˆ qE
 The force exerted is in the negative y-direction.
 If we attempt to move the charge along the positive y-
direction, against the force Fe, we will need to provide an
external force Fext to counteract Fe, which requires an
expenditure of energy.
 To move q without any acceleration (at a constant
speed), it is necessary that the net force acting on the
charge be zero. This means that:
  
Fext = − Fe = − qE

 The work done, or energy expended, in moving any

object a vector differential distance dl under the
influence of force Fext is:    
dW = F .dl = − [Link]
ext

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 39

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
 If the charge is moved a distance dy along y, then:

dW = −q( − yˆ E ) . yˆdy = qEdy

 The differential electric potential energy dW per unit

charge is called the differential electric potential, or
differential voltage, dV.
 That is, dW  
dV = = − [Link] ( J / C or V )
q

 The unit of V is the volt (V), and therefore the electric

field is expressed in volts per metre (V/m).

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 40

 ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FIELDS
 Thus the potential difference between any two points P2
and P1 is obtained by integrating dV along the path
between P1 and P2V. =That
∫ dV is:
P2 P2 
V21 = V2 − V1 = ∫ dV = ∫ [Link]
P1 P1

 Where V1 and V2 are the electric potentials at points P1

and P2, respectively.
 The result of the line integral above should be
independent of the specific path of integration between
points P1 and P2. P P  
2 2  
V22 = V2 seen
 It is also readily − V2 = ∫ dV = ∫ E
that .dl = integral
the ∫ [Link] = 0 of the
P2 P2 C
electrostatic field   E around
    any  closed contour is
But ∫ [Link] = ∫ ∇[Link] ⇒∇xE = 0
zero: C S

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 41

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
 We now define what is meant by the electric potential V
at a point in space.
 Whenever we talk of a voltage V in a circuit, we do so in
reference to a voltage of some conveniently chosen
point to which we have assigned a reference voltage
of zero, which we call ground.
 The same principle applies to electric potential V.
Usually, the reference potential point is chosen to be at
infinity. That is, if we assume V1=0 when P1 is at infinity,
the electric potential at any point P is given by:
P  
V = − ∫ [Link]
∞

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 42

 ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FIELDS
DUE TO POINT CHARGES
 For a charge q located at the origin of a spherical
coordinate system, the electric field at a distance R is
given by:  q
E = aˆ R (V / m)
4πε o R 2

 As indicated before, the choice of the integration path

between two points in determining the potential V is
quite arbitrary. Hence we conveniently choose the path
to be along the radial direction R, in which case we
have: R   R q  q
V = − ∫ [Link] = − ∫  aˆ R .( aˆ R dR ) =
2
(V )
∞ ∞ 4πε o R  4πε o R

 If the charge q is at a location other than the origin,

specified by a source position vector R1, then the
potential V at observation position
q vector R becomes:
V=   (V )
4πε o R − R1

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 43

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO POINT CHARGES
The principle of superposition that has been applied
previously to the electric field E also applies to the
electric potential V.
For N discrete point charges q1, q2, ..,qN having
position vectors R1, R2, .., R , the electric potential
1 N qNi
is: V= ∑   (V )
4πε i =1 R − R o i

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 44

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS
CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
 For a continuous charge distribution specified over a
given volume V, across a surface S, or along a line l, we
replace the qi with: ρ dv; ρ ds; ρ dl
v s l

 Then, converting the summation into integration, we

1 ρv
obtain: V ( R) = ∫ dv (volume distribution)
4πε o V R
1 ρs
V ( R) = ∫ dS ( surface distribution)
4πε o S R
1 ρl
V ( R) = ∫ dl (line distribution)
4πε o L R

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 45

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ELECTRIC FIELD AS A FUNCTION OF ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL
 We have seen that:
 
dV = − [Link]

 If we resolve E and dl into rectangular coordinates, we

 
have:
E = xˆE x + yˆ E y + zˆE z ; dl = xˆdx + yˆ dy + zˆdz
 
∴ [Link] = ( xˆE x + yˆ E y + zˆE z ).( xˆdx + yˆ dy + zˆdz ) = E x dx + E y dy + E z dz
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
∴ Ex = − ; Ey = − ; Ez = − ;
∂x ∂y ∂z

 
 Thus E = −∇V

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 46

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
EXAMPLE:
Given the potential function:

10
V= 2
sin θ cos φ
r
Determine:
A) The electric field strength and the electric
flux density at (2,π/2, 0)
The work done in moving a 10-µC charge from
point A (1,30o, 120o) to B(4,90o,60o)

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 47

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 SOLUTION:

   ∂V 1 ∂V ˆ 1 ∂V ˆ
E = −∇V = −  rˆ + θ+ φ
 ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 
20 10 10
= 3 sin θ cos φrˆ − 3 cosθ cos φθˆ + 3 sin φφˆ
r r r
  20  20
E =  rˆ − 0θˆ + 0φˆ  = rˆ V / m = 2.5rˆ V / m
( 2,π / 2, 0 )  8  8
  10 − 9  20  −11
D = εoE =  rˆ  = 2.21x10 C / m2
36π  8 

B 
W = QV AB = −Q ∫ [Link] = Q(VB − V A )
A
 10 10 
= Q  2 sin θ cos φ − 2 sin θ cosφ 
 r ( 4,90 o ,60 o ) r (1,30 o ,120 o ) 

( )10 10
= 10 x10 − 6  sin 90 o cos 60 o − sin 30 o cos120 o  = 10 − 5

( )1032 − −410 
16 1 
∴W = 2.8125x10 -5 J

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 48

 ELECTROSTATIC
 THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
FIELDS
 An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of
equal but opposite sign are separated by a small
distance, as shown below.
z

r1
θ
r2

+Q
r
d y

-Q
An Eectric Dipole
x

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 49

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
 The potential at point P(r,θ,φ) is given by:
Q 1 1  Q  r2 − r1 
V=  −  =  
4πεo  r1 r2  4πεo  r1r2 
 Where r1 and r2 are the distances between P and +Q and –Q,
respectively.
 If r>>d,2 then:
2 d 
2
r =r +1 − 2r (d / 2) cosθ ≈ r 2 − 2r (d / 2) cosθ
 
2
∴ r1 = r 2 − 2r (d / 2) cosθ = r 1 − (d / r ) cosθ ≈ r − (d / 2) cosθ
2
d 
r22 = r +   + 2r (d / 2) cosθ ≈ r 2 + 2r (d / 2) cosθ
2
2
∴ r2 = r 2 + 2r (d / 2) cosθ = r 1 + (d / r ) cosθ ≈ r + (d / 2) cosθ
∴ r2 − r1 ≈ d cosθ
( )( )
r1r2 = r 1 − (d / r ) cosθ r 1 + (d / r ) cosθ = r 2 (( (1 − (d / r ) cosθ ) ( 1 + (d / r ) cosθ ) ))
= r 2  1 − [ (d / r ) cosθ ] 2  ≈ r 2
 
Q  r2 − r1  Qd cosθ
∴V =  rr =
4πε o  1 2  4πε o r
2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 50

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
 Define the dipole moment p as:
 
p = Qd

Qd cosθ p.rˆ
V= 2
=
4πε o r 4πε o r 2

 The electric field due to the dipole with centre at the

origin, is:
   ∂V 1 ∂V ˆ
E = −∇V = −  rˆ + θ
 ∂ r r ∂ θ 
Qd cosθ Qd sin θ ˆ
= 3
ˆ+
r 3
θ
2πε o r 4πε o r

∴E =
p
2 cos [
θ ˆ + sin θθˆ
r ]
4πε o r 3

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 51

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Notice that a point charge is a monopole, and
its electric filed varies inversely as r2, while its
potential varies inversely as r.
For the dipole, we notice that the electric field
varies inversely as r3, while its potential varies
inversely as r2.
The electric fields due to the presence of a
quadrupole (consisting of two dipoles) vary
inversely as r4, while the corresponding
potential varies inversely as r3.

EXAMPLE:
Two dipoles
 have dipole moments p1 and p2
p1 = −5 x10 − 9 zˆ Cm; p2 = 9 x10 − 9 zˆ Cm
are located at points (0,0,2) and (0,0,3),
respectively. Find the potential at the origin if:
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 52
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
 SOLUTION:
 The potential is given by:
     
2 pk .rk 1  p1.r1 p2 .r2 
V= ∑ =  3 + 3 
3
k =1 4πε o rk 4πε o  r1 r2 
  
p1 = −5 x10 − 9 zˆ ; r1 = (0,0,0) − (0,0,−2) = 2 zˆ; r1 = r1 = 2
  
p2 = 9 x10 − 9 zˆ; r2 = (0,0,0) − (0,0,3) = −3 z; r2 = r2 = 3
ˆ

1  − 10 x10 − 9 27 x10 − 9   10 
∴V =  −  = 9  − − 1 = −20.25V
10 − 9  8 27   8 
4π
36π

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 53

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 EXAMPLE:
 An electric dipole of dipole moment p is located at the
origin, where:

p = 100 x10 −12 Cm
 Find the electric filed intensity E and potential V at the
following points:
 A) (0,0,10).
 B) (1,π/3,π/2)

 ANS: 
A) E = 1.8 x10 −3 rˆV / m; V = 9 x10 −3V

( )
B) E = 0.9rˆ + 0.78θˆ x10 −3V / m; V = 0.45V

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 54

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 To determine the energy present in an assembly of
charges, we must first determine the amount of work
necessary to assemble them.
 Suppose we wish to position three point charges Q1, Q2,
and Q3 in an initial empty space shown below.

P1
Q1

P2

P3
Q2
∞
Q3

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 55

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 No work is required to transfer Q1 from infinity to P1
because the space is initially charge free and there is no
electric field.
 The work done in transferring Q2 from infinity to P2 is
equal to the product of Q2 and the potential V21 at P2
due to Q1.
 Similarly, the work done in positioning Q3 at P3 is equal
to Q3 (V32+V31), where V32 and V31 are the potentials at
P3 due to Q2 and Q1, respectively.
 Hence the total = W1 + W
WE work 2 + W3in positioning the three
done
charges is: = 0 + Q2V21 + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

WE = W3 + W2 + W1
23 + Q1 (V12 + V13in
) reverse order, then:
 If the charges=were
0 + Q2Vpositioned

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 56

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC
FIELDS
 Here, V23 is the potential at P2 due to Q3, V12 and V13 are
respectively the potentials at P1 due to Q2 and Q3. Thus
E = Q1 ( V12 + V13 ) + Q2 ( V21 + V23 ) + Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
the two
2Wequations give:
= Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3
1
∴WE = ( Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 )
2

 Where V1, V2, and V3 are the potentials at P1, P2, and P3,
respectively.
1 n
WE =are n point
 In general, if there
equation becomes: 2 k =1
∑
QkVk charges, the above

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 57

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 If, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous
charge distribution, the above summation becomes as
integration:
WE = ∫ ρ LVdl ( line ch arg e )
1
2
WE = ∫ ρ SVdS ( surface ch arg e )
1
2
WE = ∫ ρV Vdv ( volume ch arg e )
1
2

 We can further refine the expression using volume

 the
charge density by using  vector identities:
ρ v = ∇.D
  
( )
 
∇.VA = A.∇V + V ∇. A
( )
    
∴V ∇. A = ∇.VA − A.∇V

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 58

 ELECTROSTATIC
 FIELDS
ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC
FIELDS
Therefore we obtain:

WE =
1
2∫
ρV Vdv =
1  
2∫
(
∇.D Vdv )
1  
( ) (
1  
)
1 
(
= ∫ ∇.D Vdv = ∫ ∇.VD dv − ∫ D.∇V dv
2 2 2
)
By applying the divergence theorem to the first
term on the right-hand side of the equation, we
have:
WE = ∫ (VD ).dS − ∫ ( D.∇V ) dv
1   1 
2 S
2 V

For point charges, V varies as 1/r, and D varies

as 1/r2; for dipoles, V varies as 1/r2 and D varies
as 1/r3; andElectrostatic
ENEL2FT Field Theory
so on. Fields 59
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 Hence VD in the first term on the rhs must vary at least as 1/r 3

while dS varies as r2.

 Consequently the first integral must tend to zero as the surface
dS becomes large.
 Therefore WE reduces to:

1 
( 1  
)
WE = − ∫ D.∇V dv = ∫ D.E dv
2V 2V
( )
1
∴WE = ∫ ε 2
o E dv
2V

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 60

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 EXAMPLE:
 Three point charges, -1nC, 4nC, and 3nC, are located at
(0,0,0), (0,0,1), and (1,0,0), respectively. Find the energy in the
system.

 SOLUTION:
1 n 1
WE = ∑ QkVk = [ Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 ]
2 k =1 2
Q2 Q3 4 x10 − 9 3 x10 − 9
V1 = V12 + V13 = + = + = 63V
4πε o (1) 4πε o (1) 10 − 9 10 − 9
4π (1) 4π (1)
36π 36π
Q1 Q3 − 1x10 − 9 3 x10 − 9
V2 = V21 + V23 = + = + = 10.09V
4πε o (1) 4πε o 2 ( )
4π
10 − 9
(1) 4π 10 − 9
2
36π 36π
Q1 Q2 − 1x10 − 9 4 x10 − 9
V3 = V31 + V32 = + = + = 16.46V
4πε o (1) 4πε o 2
4π
( )
10 − 9
(1) 4π 10 − 9
2
36π 36π
1 1
[( ) ( )
∴WE = [ Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 ] = − 1x10 − 9 63 + 4 x10 − 9 10.09 + 3 x10 − 9 16.46
2 2
( ) ]
WE = 13.36x10 - 9 J

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 61

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 An ideal dielectric or insulator is a material with no free
electrons in its lattice structure.
 That is, all the electrons associated with an ideal
dielectric are strongly bound to its constituent
molecules.
 These electrons experience very strong internal
restraining forces that oppose their random movements.
 Therefore when an electric field is maintained within a
dielectric by an external source of energy, there is no
current.
 However, under the influence of an electric field, the
molecules of a dielectric material experience distortion
in the sense that the centre of a positive charge of a
molecule no longer coincides with the centre of a
negative charge.
 We then say the dielectric material is polarized; in such
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 62
a polarized state, the dielectric material contains a
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

Fig.A: A dielectric in its normal state where the centre of a positive charge
coincides with that of a negative charge

 A schematic diagram of a dielectric slab in its normal

state is shown above. In this case, there is no influence
of an external field.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 63
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 The figure below shows the same dielectric material
under the influence of an external electric field.


E

Fig.B: A polarized dielectric showing the separation between charge pairs

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 64

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 The potential at a point P outside a polarized dielectric
material is shown in the figure below.
  
 R = r − r'
P
r

O

r'

S’
dv’

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 65

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 Define the polarization vector, as the number of dipole
moments per unit volume:

 ∆p
P = lim
∆v ∆v → 0

 Therefore for the volume dv’ in the figure, we can

represent the dipole moment as:
 
dp = Pdv'
 The potential at point P due to the dipole moment is
given by: 
P.Rˆ
dV = dv'
4πε R o
2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 66

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 But we have:
1 1
∇'   = Rˆ
R R
2

 
P.Rˆ P.∇' (1 / R )
∴ dV = dv' = dv'
4πε R 4πε
o
2
o

 Using the vector identity:

    
P.∇' (1 / R ) = ∇'.( P / R ) − ( ∇'.P ) / R
   
P.∇' (1 / R ) 1    P  ( ∇'.P ) 
∴ dV = dv' =  ∇'.  −  dv'
4πε o
4πε   R 
o
R 

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 67

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 Now integrating over the volume v’ of the polarized
dielectric, we obtain the potential at point P as:
  
1   P ( ∇'.P ) 
V = ∫ dV =  ∫ ∇'. dv'− ∫ dv'
4πε   R 
v' Ro  v' v'

 Applying the divergence theorem to the first term on the

right-hand side, we obtain:
  
1  ( P.aˆ ) ( ∇'.P ) 
V = ∫ dV =  ∫ ds '− ∫ dv' n

v'πεpoint
 Thus the potential4at  PRdue to the polarized
Ro  s' v'

dielectric is the algebraic sum of two terms: a surface

term and a volume term.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 68

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 If we define the bound surface charge density, ρsb,

ρ = P.aˆ
and the bound volume charge density, ρvb, as:
sb n
 
ρ = −∇'.P
vb

 ρ ρ 
∴V =  ∫ ds '+ ∫ dv'
sb vb

 R s' R  v'

 Thus the polarization of a dielectric material results

in bound charge distributions.
 These bound charge distributions are not like free
charges: they are created by separating the charge
pairs
ENEL2FT Field mentioned
Theory earlier.
Electrostatic Fields 69
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
If a dielectric region contains the free charge
density in addition to the bound charge density,
the contribution due to the free charge density
must also be considered to determine   the
ρ v + ρ vb region.
 dielectric
electric field in the ρ v − ∇.PThat is:
∇.E = =
ε o
ε o
  
∴ ∇.( ε E + P ) = ρ
o v

The right-hand side is simply the free charge

density. But the divergence of D is also the free
charge density, and it would
 be true as P goes

to 0. Therefore in D
general
= ε E we
+ Phave: o
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 70
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
 We can also express the polarization vector in terms of
the susceptibility of the medium, χ:
 
P = ε χE o
   
∴ D = ε ( 1 + χ ) E = ε ε E = εE
o o r

 Here, (1+ χ) is called the relative permeability or the

dielectric constant, ε, of the medium. Therefore, in any
medium, the electrostatic fields satisfy the following
equations:  
∇XE = 0
 
∇.D = ρ v
 
D = εE

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 71

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Just as electric fields can exist in free space, they can exist
in material media.
 Materials are therefore broadly classified in terms of their
electrical properties as conductors and non-conductors.
 Non-conducting materials are usually referred to as
insulators or dielectrics.
 A material with high conductivity has very high electrical
conductivity σ>>1. This is the case for most metals.
 Insulators or dielectrics, on the other hand, are materials
with low conductivity (σ<<1).
 A material whose conductivity lies between those of metals
and insulators is called a semi-conductor.
 The conductivity of metals generally increases with
decrease in temperature. At temperatures near absolute
zero (T=0oK), some conductors exhibit infinite conductivity,
and are called superconductors.
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 72
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONVECTION CURRENT
 Electric current is generally caused by the motion of
electric charges.
 Convection current, as distinct from conduction current,
does not involve conductors and consequently does not
satisfy Ohm’s law.
 Convection current occurs when current flows through an
insulating medium such as liquid, rarefied gas, or a
vacuum.
 A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube, for example, is a
convection current.
dQ
 The current through a given area is defined as the electric
I=
charge passing through the area per unit time.
 That is:
dt
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 73
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONVECTION CURRENT
 Thus, in a current of one ampere, charge is being
transferred at a rate of one coulomb per second.
 Consider the current filament shown below.

∆S ρv

∆l

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 74

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONVECTION CURRENT
 If there is a flow of charge, of density ρv, at velocity:

u = u yˆ y

∆Q ∆l
∴ ∆I = = ρ ∆S = ρ ∆Su
∆t ∆t
v v y

 If we define the current density at a given point as the

current through a unit normal area at that point, then
the y-directed current density Jy is given by:
∆I
J = =ρu
∆S
y v y

 
⇒J =ρu v

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 75

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONVECTION CURRENT

 The current I is the convection current, and J is the

convection current density in Amperes per square
meter.

 The total current through a prescribed surface S is

therefore given by:
 
I = ∫ J .dS
S

 Compared with the general definition of flux, the

above equation shows that the current I through S is
merely the flux of the current density J.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 76

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 CONDUCTION CURRENT
 When an electric filed is applied to a conductor,
conduction current flows due to the drift motion of
electrons.
 As the electrons move, they encounter some damping
forces called resistance.
 The average drift velocity of the electrons is directly
proportional to the applied field.
 
 Thus, for a conductor, we have:

J = σE
 Here, σ is the conductivity of the material in siemens
per meter (S/m), and J is known as the conduction
current density. The above equation is referred to
as
ENEL2FT Ohm’s
Field Theory law.
Electrostatic Fields 77
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND
RELAXATION TIME
Due to the principle of conservation of
charge, the time rate of decrease of charge
within a given volume must be equal to the
net outward flow through the closed surface
of the volume.   dQ
I out = ∫Iout
Thus the current S = − outin of the closed
J .dcoming
surface is: dt

   
Here, Qin
closed surface.
∫ .dS =charge
is theJ total
V
∫ ∇.Jenclosed
dv by the

Invoking the divergence theorem, we have:

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 78
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND RELAXATION
TIME
 But we also have:
dQ d ∂ρ
− = − ∫ ρ dv = − ∫
in
dvv

dt dt ∂t
v
V v

 Thus we have:
∂ρ     ∂ρ
−∫ dv = ∫ ∇.Jdv ⇒ ∇.J = −
v v

V∂t V ∂t

 This is called the continuity equation,

  which is derived from
the principle of conservation of∇.charge.
J =0
 For steady currents, d/dt=0, and thus , showing that
the total charge leaving a volume is the same as the total
charge entering it.
 Kirchhoff’s current
ENEL2FT Field Theory
law follows from this.
Electrostatic Fields 79
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND RELAXATION
TIME
 To determine the relaxation time, we use Ohm’s law

and Gauss’s laws: 
J = σE
    ρ
∇.D = ρ ⇒ ∇.E = v

ε
v

 Substituting these into the continuity equation, we

  σρ ∂ρ
have:
∇.(σE ) = =− v v

ε ∂t
∂ρ σ
∴ + ρ =0
v

∂t ε
v

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 80

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND RELAXATION
TIME
 The solution to the above first-order differential
equation is:
ρ =ρ e
v vo
− t /T

ε
T=
σ

 In the equation, ρvo is the initial (or introduced) charge

density at t=0.
 The equation shows that as a result of introducing
volume charge ρ vo at some point of the material,
there is a decay of volume charge density, ρ v.
 Associated with this decay is charge movement
from the interior point at which it was
introduced to the surface of the material.
 The decay time constant T is known as the relaxation
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 81
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND RELAXATION
TIME
 The relaxation time, T, is the time it takes a (volume)
charge placed in the interior of a material to drop to 1/e
=0.368 of its initial value.
 T is small for good conductors (metals) and very large
for insulators (dielectrics).
 For example, for copper, σ=5.8x107, and εr=1, while for
quartz, with σ=10-17, and εr=5.0, we have:
ε ε ε (1)( 8.84 x10 )
−12

T = = =
r o
= 1.53 x10 sec −19

σ σ 5.8 x10
Copper 7

ε ε ε (5.0)( 8.84 x10 ) −12

T = = =
r o
= 4.42 x10 sec = 51.2 days 6

σ σ 10
Quartz −17

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 82

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND
RELAXATION TIME
Thus we have a rapid decay of charge
within copper, which shows that for
good conductors, the relaxation time is
so short that that most of the charge will
vanish from the interior point and
appear on the surface as surface
charge.
On the other hand, for good insulators
like quartz, one may consider the
introduced
ENEL2FT Field Theory
volume charge to remain
Electrostatic Fields 83
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 So far we have considered the existence of the electric field
in a homogeneous medium.
 If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media,
the conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface
separating the media are called boundary conditions.
 The boundary conditions are helpful in determining the field
on one side of the boundary if the field on the other side of
the boundary is known.
 To determine the boundary  conditions, we need to use
Maxwell’s equations ∫ Efor =0
.dlelectrostatic fields:
 
∫ [Link] = Q enc

E = tˆE + nˆ E
t n

 Here, the electric field intensity at the interface has been

ENEL2FTdecomposed
Field Theory into twoFields
Electrostatic components: the tangential component, 84
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
 Consider the electric field E existing in a region
containing two different dielectrics characterized by
electric permitivities ε1=εoεr1, and ε2=εoεr2, as shown
below. Medium 1, ε 1

E1 E1n
a b
E1t
∆h

E2t
d c
∆w
E2n
E2

Medium 2, ε 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 85

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
 Consider the electric field intensity existing in the region
consisting of two different dielectrics, shown in the figure.
 The fields in medium
 1 and medium 2 can be decomposed
as: E1 = tˆE1t + nˆ E1n

E = tˆE + nˆ E
2 2t 2n

  the first of the two∆hMaxwell’s

 WE apply ∆h equations∆to
h the ∆h
l =0⇒
∫ [Link]
closed 0 = of
abcd E1t ∆w −figure,
the E1n −assuming
E2 n − E2 tthe
∆w +path
E2 n is+very
E1n
2 2 2 2
 
small. We obtain:
lim ∫ [Link] = 0 ⇒ E ∆w − E ∆w = 0
∆h →0 1t 2t

∴E = E 1t 2t

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 86

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
 Consider now the pillbox (Gaussian surface) in the figure
below. Medium 1, ε 1

D1 D1n ∆S

D1t
∆h

D2t

D2n
D2

Medium 2, ε 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 87

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
If we
 allow
 ∆h →0, we have:
∫ [Link] = Q = 2πr∆h( D + D ) + ∆S ( D − D
enc 1t 2t 1n 2n
)
 
lim ∫ [Link] = Q = ∆S ( D − D ) = ρ ∆S
∆h →0 enc 1n 2n s

∴( D − D 1n 2n
)=ρ s

Here ρs is the surface charge density placed at

the boundary.
If no surface charges exist at the interface,
then the normal component of D is continuous
at the interface; =
D that D
is: 1n 2n
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 88
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 We now use the boundary conditions to determine the
“refraction” of the electric field across the interface.
 Consider, in the figure below, D1 or E1 and D2 or E2
making angles θ1 and θ2 with the normal as illustrated
below. D 1
Medium 1, ε 1

E1
D1n
θ1
E1n

D1t
θ2 E1t

E2 E2n

E2t
D2n
D2 Medium 2, ε 2

D2t

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 89

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 DIELECTRIC-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 Using the equation for the tangential components of E, we
have:

E = E sin θ = E = E sin θ
1t 1 1 2t 2 2

∴ E sin θ = E sin θ
1 1 2 2

 Similarly, applying the equation relating the normal

components of D, we have (assuming there is no surface
charge at the interface):
D = ε E = ε E cosθ = D = ε E = ε E cosθ
1n 1 1n 1 1 1 2n 2 2n 2 2 2

∴ ε E cosθ = ε E cosθ
1 1 1 2 2 2

ε E cosθ ε E cosθ tan θ ε ε

 Dividing these two equations, we have the law of refraction
1
at a boundary1 1
free of =charge:
2 2 2
⇒ 1
= 1
= r1

E sin θ
1 1
E sin θ 2 2
tan θ 2
ε 2
ε r2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 90

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 CONDUCTOR-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 If we let medium 2 to be a perfect conductor (σ →∞), from
Ohm’s law,
 
J = σE
 Good conductors like copper, silver, aluminium, etc, can be
regarded as perfect conductors, since σ is very large (σ∼107).
 To maintain a finite current density, J, for infinite conductivity,
it is required that as σ →∞, E →0.
 If some charges are introduced within the conductor, the
charges will move to the conductor surface and redistribute
themselves such that the field inside the conductor vanishes.
According to Gauss’s law, if E=0,  the divergence of E is also 0.
Thus a good ∫v ρ v dv = ∫shas
Qenc =conductor S =volume
[Link] ∫v ∇.Ddvcharge distribution.
   
∴ ∇.D = ε∇.E = ρ = 0 v

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 91

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
 CONDUCTOR-DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 To determine the boundary conditions, we incorporate the fact
that E →0, inside a good conductor.
 Therefore as ∆h →0, we have:

E =E =0
1t 2t
 Thus the tangential component of E vanishes at the interface.
 Similarly, considering the normal component of D, we again
incorporate the fact that E →0, inside a good conductor. We
have
(D 1n
−D 2n
)=ρ s
⇒ ε E −ε E = ρ
1 1n 2 2n s

∴ D = −ρ ⇒ D = ρ
n2 s n s

 An important application of the fact that E=0 inside a good

conductor is in electrostatic screening or electrostatic
shielding.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 92

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION
 The procedure for determining the electric field E when
using Coulomb’s law or Gauss’s law assumes a known
charge distribution or potential V in the region.
 In most practical situations, however, neither the charge
distribution nor the potential distribution is known.
 In the case of practical electrostatic problems, only
electrostatic conditions (charge and potential) at some
boundaries are known. It is then desired to find E and V
throughout the region.
 Such problems are usually tackled using Poisson’s or
Laplace’s equation.
 They are referred to as boundary-value problems.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 93

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S
EQUATIONS
 Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations are easily
derived from   law and the gradient of the
Gauss’s
∇.D = ∇.εE = ρ v
potential field:
 
E = −∇V

( )

∇. − ε∇V = ρ
 Substituting the second equation into the first
v
gives, for a homogeneous medium, Poisson’s
equation, namely:
2 ρv
∴∇ V = −
ε
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 94
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS
 A special case of Poisson’s equation occurs when the
volume charge distribution ρv=0. Then we have
Laplace’s equation, namely:
2
∇ V =0

 The Laplacian operator, ∇ 2, is defined in Cartesian,

∂ 2Vand
cylindrical,
2 ∂ 2Vspherical
∂ 2V coordinates as:
∇ V = 2 + 2 + 2 =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇ V= ρ + 2 + 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ  ∂ρ  ρ ∂φ 2
∂z
1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂ 2V
∇ V = 2 r2
2
 +  sin θ + 2 2 =0
r ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  r sin θ ∂φ 2

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 95

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING
POISSON’S OR LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS
 The following procedure may be used in solving a given
boundary-value problem involving Poisson’s or Laplace’s
equations (see Sadiku):
 Solve Laplace’s or Poisson’s equation either using direct
integration (when V is a function of a single variable like x
or y, or r), or using the separation of variables (if V is a
function of more than one variable). The solution at this
stage is not unique.
 Apply the boundary conditions to determine a unique
solution for V. Imposing the given boundary conditions
makes the solution unique.
 Having obtained V, find E from E=-∇V, and D=εE.
 If desired, find the charge Q induced in a conductor using
Q=∫ρsdS where ρs=Dn, and Dn is the component of D normal
to the conductor.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 96
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING

POISSON’S OR LAPLACE’S
EQUATIONS
 EXAMPLE:
x
ρ vdevice,
 In a one-dimensional = ρ o the charge density is
given by: a

V=
6εa
(
ρo 3
)
a − x3 ;

 If E=0 at x=0 and V=0

 ρ o xat
E=
2
xˆ
x=a, find V and E.
2εa

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 97

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING
POISSON’S OR LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS
 Solution:

2 ρv ρ o x ∂ 2V ρ x
∇ V =− =− ⇒ 2 =− o
ε εa ∂x εa
∂V ρo x 2
∴ =− + K1 = − E ⇒ E x = 0 = K1 = 0
∂x 2εa
 ρo x 2
∴E = xˆ
2εa
ρo x3 ρo x3 ρo a 2
V ( x) = − + K1 x + K 2 = − + K 2 ⇒ V ( x) x = a = 0 ⇒ K 2 =
6εa 6εa 6ε
ρ
(
∴V ( x) = o a 3 − x 3
6εa
)
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 98
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
 EXAMPLE:
 Two semi-infinite conducting planes φ=0 and φ=π/6 are
separated by an infinitesimal insulating gap as shown below. If
V(φ=0)=0 and V(φ=π/6)=100V, calculate E and V in the region
between the planes.
z gap

φo
0V
y

x
Vo

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 99

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
 SOLUTION
 As V depends only on φ, Laplace’s equations in
cylindrical coordinates becomes:
1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂ V ∂ V 1 ∂ V 2 2 2

∇V =
2
ρ + + = =0
ρ ∂ρ  ∂ρ  ρ ∂φ ∂z 2
ρ ∂φ 2 2 2 2

 Multiplying both sides by ρ2 and integrating twice, we

obtain: dV2

= 0 ⇒ V = Aφ + B
dφ 2

 To evaluate the integration constants A and B, we

apply the boundary conditions.

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 100

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
 SOLUTION
 WE obtain:
V φ =B=0
=0

π 600
V = A = 100 ⇒ A =
6
φ =π / 6
π
 600 
∴V = Aφ =  φ
 π 
  1 dV ˆ  600  ˆ
E = −∇V = − φ = φ
ρ dφ  πρ 
ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 101
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
 EXAMPLE
 Two conducting plates of size 1X5 m are inclined at φo=45o to
each other with a gap of 4 mm separating them as shown
below. Determine an approximate value of the charge per
plate if the plates are maintained at a potential difference of
Vo=50V. Assume that the medium between them has εr=1.5.
z gap

φo
0V
y

x
Vo

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 102

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
SOLUTION
 We can determine V and E, as before. But at the interface,
Dn=ρs; that is, the surface charge density equals the
normal component of D. We then have:
V φ =B=0
=0

π 200
Vφπ =A = 50 ⇒ A =
= /4
4 π
 200 
∴V = Aφ =  φ
 π 
  1 dV ˆ  200  ˆ
E = −∇ V = − φ = φ
ρ dφ  πρ 
   200ε   200ε 
D = εE =  φˆ; D = D =  
πρ πρ
n φ
   

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 103

 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS –
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
 SOLUTION
 To obtain the charge per plate, we need to get the
total flux,   equals
which 1 5 the total charge enclosed:

Ψ = ∫ [Link] = ∫ ∫ Ddzdρ
ρS = 0.004 z = 0

 200ε 
1 5
 200ε 
= ∫ ∫ dzdρ =  5ln ρ
1

 πρ   π 
0.004
ρ = 0.004 z = 0

= 1.555xε 10 C = 2.3325x10 C
r
-8 -8

= 23.3 nC

ENEL2FT Field Theory Electrostatic Fields 104