3
The Importance of Soil Health to Nature’s Contributions to People
“While the farmer holds the title to the land, actually it belongs to all the people because civilization itself rests upon the soil,” Thomas Jefferson once said. These words resonate because the health of soil determines human health through a variety of mechanisms. The linkage that is perhaps easiest to appreciate is the production of food, but soils also filter and regulate the flow of water, including drinking water. In addition, soils provide habitat and nutrients for diverse soil biota, cycle nutrients, and harbor genetic resources that can result in new medicines, including antibiotics (Figure 3-1). Soils are best seen as ecosystems, defined as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit” (United Nations 1992, Article 2). Many of the benefits, or services, to humans from those interactions are organized around biogeochemical processes and the various functions carried out by soil biota (Kibblewhite et al. 2008; Smith et al. 2015).
In 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) categorized services provided by ecosystems into four groups including provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural (MEA 2005). More recently, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) reclassified and reconceptualized many of such services as Nature’s Contributions to People (NCP; Díaz et al., 2018). In doing so, IPBES de-emphasized the attribution of economic value to ecosystem services under the MEA, recognizing the potential pitfalls of simplistic application of financial models to complex environmental systems. Instead, the NCP framework underscores the importance of involving a broader spectrum of disciplines and cultures—particularly those from the social sciences and humanities—in the generation of new knowledge, environmental discourse, and policy formulation.
Recognizing the importance of these modifications to the MEA, as well as the clear linkages between soil NCPs and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (P. Smith et al. 2021), the committee has chosen to use the concept of NCPs in this
report. This chapter reviews the contributions soils make to people, placing particular emphasis on the contributions made to human health.
WHICH OF NATURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEOPLE ARE DERIVED FROM SOIL?
Prior to the early 2000s, soils were rarely included in assessments of ecosystem services (Brevik et al. 2018). Since then, the number of scientific papers involving soil multifunctionality has increased exponentially (Adhikari and Hartemink 2016). Soil-derived NCPs are divided here into three main categories: material NCPs, regulating NCPs, and nonmaterial NCPs (Table 3-1). Material NCPs refer to goods and resources that are harvested or extracted from soils and include food and feed, fuel and building materials, and genetic resources (MEA 2005; Brevik et al. 2018; Díaz et al. 2018). Regulating NCPs are natural processes that help modulate and maintain the balance of ecosystems and earth systems, including soil formation, habitat creation, water and air regulation, and the ability of soils to suppress disease and degrade pollutants. Nonmaterial NCPs include benefits obtained from soils that contribute to cultural, recreational, and spiritual well-being. Material and regulating NCPs are discussed in detail below, along with a brief discussion of nonmaterial NCPs. Cross-cutting NCPs—a fourth category of NCPs described by IPBES—are not discussed here.
Nutrient cycling, which facilitates multiple ecosystem services, had previously been considered a supporting service in the MEA but was not assigned to a specific NCP in the new framework; it was instead separated to highlight how this process works together for multiple soil NCPs. Because of the important roles nitrogen and carbon play in food production, the committee opted to specifically discuss these nutrient cycles in the “Regulating NCP” section.
MATERIAL NATURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEOPLE
Food Supply, Sustainability, and Security
Soils provide the majority of chemical, physical, and biological requirements for the production of food and feed crops, as well as those grown for fiber, fuel, and building materials. Globally, an estimated 95 percent of food is produced on soil, either directly or indirectly (FAO 2015). The fundamental linkage between soil and human health is thus straightforward: soil provides the nutrients, water, physical matrix, and biological community necessary to grow the crops on which humans rely for sustenance. Soil is absolutely essential for the production of sufficient amounts of food to support humanity.
Food security is defined as the state in which “all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO 1996). To achieve this goal, food production must adhere to the principles of sustainability as originally articulated by the Brundtland Commission, “meet[ing] the needs of the present without
SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Reproduced with permission.
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations 1987). Achieving both food security and food sustainability is a complex challenge, to which soil is central (Oliver and Gregory 2015). Soil and land are finite resources, and as global population grows, the amount of productive land per person decreases, threatening food security (Bruinsma 2011; Ramankutty et al. 2018). At the same time, increases in food production have too often come at the expense of soil health, threatening food sustainability (see Chapter 4; Bagnall et al. 2021).
Genetic, Medicinal, and Biochemical Resources
Because soils contain diverse microbial communities that collectively encode unparalleled functionally catalytic properties, these environments represent a critical resource source for natural products. For instance, soils can be mined for enzymes to support industrial applications and the production of medicinal products. There are
TABLE 3-1 Three Main Categories of Soil-Derived Nature’s Contributions to People (NCPs)
| Material NCPs | Food supply, sustainability, and security |
| Genetic, medicinal, and biochemical resources | |
| Materials and energy | |
| Regulating NCPs | Soil formation, protection, and degradation of contaminants |
| Habitat creation and maintenance | |
| Nutrient cyclinga | |
| Climate regulationa | |
| Water regulation | |
| Air quality regulationb | |
| Disease suppression | |
| Nonmaterial NCPs | Learning and inspiration |
| Physical and psychological experiences | |
| Supporting identities |
a This chapter specifically reviews the nitrogen and carbon cycles in the section “Nutrient Cycling and Climate Regulation.”
b Air quality regulation is discussed in the sections “Soil Formation and Protection” and “Nutrient Cycling and Climate Regulation.”
SOURCE: Modified from P. Smith et al. (2021).
many examples where biocatalysts derived from soils have either been used themselves or exploited to aid in the optimization of existing enzymes for accelerated reaction rates, enhanced or relaxed enzyme specificities, and operation under nonstandard conditions (Ahmad et al. 2019), which has led to use of soil-derived lipases, amidases, cellulases, chitinases, proteases, and alcohol oxidoreductases, to name a few, for industrial and commercial uses (Salwan and Sharma 2018; Thiele-Bruhn 2021). The use of functional metagenomic screening is aiding in the discovery of novel genes coding for enzymes, enabling the sampling of enzymes from uncultivated microorganisms (Zhang et al. 2021). Although these discoveries have yielded commercial products, there is still much work to be done to fully uncover the wealth of enzymes and catalyzed reactions that remain hidden in soils. The ongoing exploration of soil for biochemical resources holds the potential for novel and environmentally friendly ways to synthesize industrial chemicals.
In addition to biochemical provisioning, soil biota produce a variety of small molecules with bioactivity (Lee and Lee 2013). Soil biota are important sources of antibiotics, defined as large group of organic compounds produced by microorganisms that are deleterious to other microorganisms. Furthermore, soil biota also synthesize secondary metabolites with pharmaceutical activities, such as hypocholesterolaemic drugs, anti-cancer drugs, and immunosuppressants (Thiele-Bruhn 2021). Table 3-2 showcases representative commercial antibiotics and pharmaceuticals derived from soil
TABLE 3-2 Examples of Marketed Compounds Originating from Soil Microbial-Derived Natural Productsa
| Drug class | Compound (selected list) | Commercial product (examples) | Soil microbial source (genus only) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Antibiotic | Penicillin | Penicillin G, Ampicillin, Methicillin, Carbenicillin, Amoxicillan | Penicillium, Aspergillus |
| Cephalosporin | Ceclor, Mefoxin, Ceftin | Acremonium, Eericellopsis, Streptomyces | |
| Streptomycin | Estreptomicina, Devomycin | Streptomyces | |
| Immunosuppressant | Cyclosporin | Sandimmune | Tolypocladium |
| Tacrolimus (FK506) | Prograf | Streptomyces | |
| Mycophenolic | Cellcept | Penicillum, Verticicladiella, Septoria | |
| Anti-tumor | Bleomycin | Streptomyces | |
| Doxorubicin | Adriamcyin, Doxil | Streptomyces | |
| Cholesterol lowering | Lovastatin | Mevacor, Zocor (Simvastatin) | Aspergillus, Monascus |
| Mevastatin | Prvachol | Penicillum | |
| Anti-migraine | Ergotamine | Ergostat, Cafergot | Claviceps |
| Lipase inhibitor | Lipstatin | Xenical (Orlistat) | Streptomyces |
a Most medicinal secondary metabolites derived from soils are produced by Actinobacteria and fungi. Among these, 70 percent of all medicinal products are ascribed to a single Actinobacterial genus, Streptomyces, while medicinal-producing fungal genera include Penicillium, Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Fusarium.
SOURCE: Based on Thiele-Bruhn (2021).
microbial natural products. Together these natural products highlight how soils have been bioprospected for products with human-health–derived benefits.
Although the use of synthesized substances in medicinal products is on the rise, most clinical substances rely on natural chemotypes or are even derived from natural agents themselves (Peláez 2006). An examination of 162 antibiotics marketed between 1982 and 2019 revealed that 7 percent were natural products and 48 percent were derived from natural sources, with the rest being prophylactic agents or synthetic drugs (Newman and Cragg 2020). Unfortunately, most antibiotics in use today were discovered more than 40 years ago, and further growth in this area has stagnated, largely due to limited financial incentives for pharmaceutical industries (Genilloud 2019). This global scarcity of new antibiotics, coupled with escalating accumulation of antibiotic resistance genes in pathogens, poses a severe threat, with an anticipated 10 million annual deaths by 2050 from antibiotic resistance (Hurley et al. 2021; Lessa and Sievert 2023). Despite various international partnerships and government-supported initiatives addressing the value chain gap for new compounds, there remains a notable dearth of
efforts focused on early discovery programs (Rex 2014; Cooper 2015; NASEM 2022). International frameworks governing genetic resources also complicate the discovery of new compounds (Box 3-1).
Nevertheless, soils remain an untapped reservoir for antibiotics. Despite the estimation of hundreds of thousands of antibiotic substances in soil, less than 5 percent have been characterized (Genilloud 2017; Crits-Christoph et al. 2018). Modern cultivation and molecular screening methods, replacing conventional culturing methods that resampled the same microorganisms and compounds, offer efficient ways to interrogate soils for promising medicinal compounds. Alternative cultivation techniques that better simulate soil conditions bring to light the functional capacities of the uncultured majority residing in soils (Carini 2019; Murray et al. 2019; Bartelme et al. 2020). These methods have recovered new natural products such as antibiotics from soil biota ranging from nematodes to microorganisms (Lewis et al. 2010; Imai et al. 2019; Shukla et al. 2023). Likewise, genomics and paired functional screens also expanded the identification of new antibiotics and medicinal products from various
BOX 3-1
Soil Bioprospecting within the Framework of the Nagoya Protocol
The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing, which went into effect in 2014, is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, an international treaty on conservation. The protocol serves as important legal guide for the fair sharing of benefits from using genetic resources, such as plants, animals, and microbes (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2011). Implementing measures to adopt and access genetic resources can enable countries to reap the benefits arising from research and development products mined from soil, while exercising their sovereign rights over these resources. However, execution of the Nagoya Protocol (and of the Convention on Biological Diversity before the protocol went into effect) for soil microbial antibiotic discovery poses several challenges. Microbial genetic resources in soil are often not clearly owned by any specific individual or community, and thus determining rightful owners and obtaining informed consent can be complex, especially when dealing with naturally occurring and widely distributed microorganisms. Obtaining necessary permits for soil sampling and addressing traditional knowledge associated with microbial resources can further hinder the exploration of microbial diversity. Differences in national regulations related to the protocol can create challenges for researchers and industries involved in soil microbial product discovery, hindering regulatory harmonization. Efforts to address these challenges may involve international collaboration, clear communication and engagement with local communities, and the development of frameworks that balance the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol with the needs of scientific research for soil microbial product discovery.
lineages of soil microbiota (Brady 2007; Piel 2011; C. Li et al. 2022). Therefore, soils represent an underutilized reservoir for medicine, with modern screening methods offering promising avenues to tap into this vast and largely unexplored resource.
Material and Energy
Peatlands, soils with partially decomposed vegetation, are a direct source of energy as these soils are harvested as fuel. Crops can also be grown for use as biofuel (J. Smith et al. 2021), and trees are grown for energy uses and construction purposes. Some types of soil are important sources of raw materials essential for construction (Brevik et al. 2018; Morel et al. 2021). Clay-rich soils are used for ceramics and the creation of bricks; other soil resources such as sand and gravel are raw materials for production of concrete and cement. Soil is also the primary constituent of adobe, rammed earth, and cob buildings.
REGULATING NATURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEOPLE
Regulating services from soil include benefits derived from soil functions that modify and control ecosystem characteristics such as maintaining water and air quality, cycling nutrients, regulating greenhouse gas (GHG) flux and climate, and disease suppression. This section describes in more detail several of the key soil functions related to regulating NCPs. Degradation of contaminants is addressed in Chapter 6.
Soil Formation and Protection
Soil formation provides the foundation for all other services derived from soil. This process is regulated by multiple factors including climate; the types and activities of organisms such as plants, animals, and humans; topographical characteristics; originating or parent materials of soil particles; and timescales over which soil formation takes place (Jenny 1946). The combined influence of these factors determines critical soil properties such as texture, structure, porosity, mineralogy, capacity for water movement and storage, and the depth to bedrock or other root-limiting layers. These properties in turn define the environmental context and thresholds for how the resulting soils function and respond to management.
Soil biota and microbiomes contribute to soil formation and development through organic residue decomposition and aggregate stabilization and production of organic acids from microbial activities that weather rocks and minerals (Oades 1993; Schulz et al. 2013). Burrowing organisms engineer physical passages that enhance aeration, drainage, and water movement, and root systems strongly influence soil structure, chemistry, and moisture content, thereby shaping soil formation and habitats (Ramette and Tiedje 2007).The strong inherent link between factors that influence soil formation and the resulting soil properties, including most soil health indicators such as soil carbon dynamics and the characteristics and functioning of soil biota, is also the reason why
soil health management outcomes and assessments are regionally specific (Zuber et al. 2020; see the section “Indicators of Soil Health” in Chapter 4).
One of the biggest threats to NCPs that derive from soil, in addition to contamination (see Chapter 6), is the functional or physical loss of soil itself. The physical loss of topsoil through erosion directly removes the richest soil layer for plant growth and carries lost sediments and nutrients as runoff to nearby waterbodies or as windblown dust that can travel anywhere from a few hundred miles to neighboring states or thousands of miles to distant continents. A recent study estimated that the midwestern United States has lost nearly a foot of topsoil in the past 150 years; tillage practices that disrupt the landscape and expose the soil to wind and water erosion have contributed heavily to these losses (Thaler et al. 2022). The National Resources Inventory of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) shows that national rates of soil erosion slowed considerably between the late 1980s and 1990s, likely due to greater awareness of soil erosion and implementation of conservation management practices, but more than 500 million tons of soil are lost from croplands per year due to wind and water erosion (USDA–NRCS 2017).
Soil erosion can affect human health in many ways, including through loss of soil resources that support stable food production. Sedimentation of water resources through soil erosion adversely affects human health directly or indirectly by reducing water quality and altering aquatic ecosystems (Heathcote et al. 2013; Chen et al. 2016). Dust particulates carried from exposed or unstable soils and agricultural operations to other urban, agricultural, and natural systems can irritate human respiratory systems and pose direct or indirect health risks (Opp et al. 2021) and transport other contaminants and irritants such as pesticides and microplastics (Middleton 2017; Aparicio et al. 2018; Rezaei et al. 2019). Particulate matter aerosols less than 2.5 and 10 μm in diameter are a major component of wind-blown sediments and dust storms that pose a significant risk for human health when inhaled (Li et al. 2015). In addition to the known harmful chronic respiratory and cardiovascular effects of inhaling sediments from dust storms due to land degradation, erosion, and increased aridity (Goudie 2020), researchers have also detected increased nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality following dust storms (Crooks et al. 2016).
Soils can be functionally removed from many of their contributions to human ecosystems through soil sealing. Coverage, by impervious surfaces such as with concrete or pavement, and compaction are increasing as a result of urbanization and development. Soil sealing creates human health and infrastructural problems in cities by preventing the soil from absorbing water after precipitation events, which can cause disastrous flooding after storms. Sealing also prevents soil and vegetation from naturally regulating heat and atmospheric exchange, thereby exacerbating the “urban heat island” effect (Scalenghe and Marsan 2009).
Threats to both the physical availability and the functional capacity of soil to perform NCPs has prompted the need to ensure “soil security.” Soil security encompasses “the maintenance and improvement of soils worldwide so that they can continue to provide food, fiber and fresh water, contribute to energy and climate sustainability and help to maintain biodiversity and protect ecosystem goods and services” (Koch
et al. 2012, 186). A key component of ensuring soil security is implementing soil management practices that provide continuous soil cover and improve soil structure to help protect and stabilize soils against water and wind erosion and prevent or mitigate land degradation and associated human health risks. Strategies that prioritize living root systems and residue coverage are effective in reducing wind and water erosion, with fibrous root systems providing the greatest protection (De Baets et al. 2011) even in sandy soils (Vannoppen et al. 2017). Revegetating bare areas or increasing vegetation along waterways and slopes can also help prevent soil movement and loss due to landslides after extreme precipitation events (Sujatha et al. 2023). In agricultural settings, reducing or stopping tillage can help mitigate erosion by reducing physical soil disturbance and maintaining structural soil development (Seitz et al. 2020). In vulnerable arid and semi-arid ecosystems where soil formation and biological activities are already limited by water scarcity, building and protecting deeper topsoil layers are even more critical to support plant productivity and soil resilience to climate extremes (Zhang et al. 2023). Soil sealing and NCP restriction under impervious surfaces can be addressed in urban systems through innovative city planning and design of greenspaces and porous surfaces (Artmann 2014), which can further help mitigate urban heat islands (Spyrou et al. 2023) and enhance hydrologic management (De Noia et al. 2022).
Habitat Creation and Maintenance
The vast biodiversity found in soil is due to soils’ considerable physical and chemical heterogeneity (Ranjard et al. 2013; Curd et al. 2018; Lehmann et al. 2020; Nunan et al. 2020), which creates hotspots, or localized areas, within the soil with heightened activity such as nutrient turnover and microbial interactions. Hotspots develop around roots, decaying organic matter, and other organic-rich pockets. Distinct moisture, oxygen, and nutrient gradients in soils—as well as unique exudation profiles, chemical properties, and root architecture of individual plants—create specialized niches for diverse microbial communities, fostering the proliferation of species with specific adaptations and promoting niche specialization within the soil ecosystem (Ramette and Tiedje 2007; Vos et al. 2013). Linkages between soil habitats and soil biodiversity are crucial for maintaining a diverse gene pool in soil organisms, which facilitates resilience with respect to changing environmental conditions (Box 3-2) and affects various material NCPs such as genetic, medicinal, and biochemical resources. Likewise, the feedback between plants, soil physical and chemical properties, and soil biota can influence the composition and biodiversity of soil biota with consequences for nutrient cycling, productivity, and plant diversity (van der Putten et al. 2013). These plant–soil feedbacks underpin many of the NCPs discussed in this chapter as well as the linkages between soil health and agricultural management practices reviewed in Chapter 4. Although much research has focused on how plant–soil feedbacks affect plant growth in both natural and agricultural systems (Mariotte et al. 2018), current and future studies can help delineate the mechanisms by which interactions between plant and soil microbiomes can affect each other’s response to increases in stress, such as from drought, within the context of the soil habitat (de Vries et al. 2023).
Nutrient Cycling and Climate Regulation
In addition to the ecosystem contexts defined by soil-forming factors and processes and providing habitat for diverse soil biota, soils are a critical medium through which nutrients cycle. Extensive research focusing on the biological, geological, and chemical cycling of nutrients in soil systems has revealed the immense complexity of how biotic and abiotic factors regulate the transformations of carbon and nitrogen, other nutrients such as phosphorus and sulfur, and other compounds including heavy metals and synthetic molecules. Within the physical and chemical controls of the soil habitat, soil microbes and microbiomes drive processes that determine the amount of plant-available nutrients such as nitrogen; loss or retention of nutrient and water resources; recycling and remediation of organic wastes, contaminants, and pollutants; and the formation and stabilization of soil organic matter (SOM) (Box 3-3). The relative balance between carbon incorporation into microbial biomass, soil organic matter, and respiration as carbon dioxide (CO2) during decomposition of organic residues by microbes, known as “carbon use efficiency,” is also an important regulator of soil nutrient cycling, organic matter formation, and carbon sequestration (Oliver et al. 2021). Given the particular interest in the committee’s charge on agriculture, the committee elected to emphasize the carbon and nitrogen cycles because of their critical roles in crop production.
Soils also play a critical role in climate regulation, as both a source and sink of GHGs. The relative degree of production versus consumption of GHGs is heavily regulated by the innate properties of a soil and by management practices. Soils are also a globally significant carbon pool with substantial potential for carbon sequestration (Padarian et al. 2022). Additionally, the nature of the soil surface can influence climate through affecting albedo (the fraction of sunlight that is reflected). This section discusses the nitrogen and carbon cycles, highlighting some key GHGs and human health aspects as well as impacts of albedo for climate regulation.
Nitrogen Cycling
Nitrogen, an element essential to building amino acids and nucleic acids, is abundant in the atmosphere in the gaseous form N2. However, plants and animals cannot make use of N2. Plants need nitrogen in the forms of ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-) for uptake and subsequent growth. Animals get the nitrogen they need from consuming organic matter that contains nitrogen. Soil is the conduit through which terrestrial plants get the nitrogen they need (Figure 3-2). Nitrogen in the atmosphere, primarily in the form of N2, can be “fixed” into forms of inorganic nitrogen available to organisms either by tremendous amounts of energy or through microorganisms. Lightning can provide the energy needed to split N2 molecules that then bind with oxygen to create nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form nitrates, which enter soil through precipitation. However, most N2 is converted into a plant-available form through biological nitrogen fixation, which can occur in different ways (Vitousek et al. 2013). Some bacteria and archaea in the soil can convert N2 into ammonia (NH3). Bacteria that live in the root nodules of legumes (rhizobia) can also carry out this conversion and provide biologically available nitrogen to these plants through a symbiotic relationship in which
BOX 3-2
Resilience and Soil-Derived Nature’s Contributions to People
Stressors that affect soil-derived Nature’s Contributions to People (NCPs) can be physical (e.g., extreme temperature, moisture, or compaction), chemical (e.g., extreme pH, excess or shortage of nutrients, salinity, heavy metals, and pesticides), or biological (e.g., loss of biodiversity and introduction of exogenous organisms). They often operate in concert (van Bruggen and Semenov 2000), which makes responses difficult to predict (Rillig et al. 2019). As such, the concept of resilience has become an increasingly central concept in ecology and in the understanding of social ecological systems including agricultural and food systems (Tendall et al. 2015; Moser et al. 2019; Van Meerbeek et al. 2021). Since the seminal work of Holling (1973), resilience has been defined in many ways, but the term is generally understood to refer to the ability of a system to continue to function (within some given set of acceptable parameters) despite shocks or disruptions. Resilience may be driven by a system’s robustness, its ability to absorb impact and resist change (though whether this truly constitutes resilience is debated, see Walker 2020); a system’s adaptability, its ability to flex and shift in order to maintain function under stress; or a system’s transformability, its ability to create a fundamentally new system when necessary to maintain overall function (Folke et al. 2010; Tendall et al. 2015; Meuwissen et al. 2019). Many attributes or characteristics of systems can contribute to resilience, including redundancy, diversity, connectivity, modularity, and a capacity for self-organization (Moser et al. 2019 and references therein). In the context of soil systems, biological diversity emerges as a central attribute influencing a soil’s ability to function (i.e., continue to provide NCPs) in the face of a wide variety of stressors.
Ecosystem multifunctionality is greater where assemblages of bacteria, fungi, protists, and invertebrate communities are more diverse (Wagg et al. 2014; Delgado-Baquerizo et al. 2020). This diversity effect results from functional complementarity, or a selection effect, where more diverse communities have higher likelihood of harboring taxa performing key functions (Loreau and Hector 2001). Resilience can also result from the presence of many taxa that perform similar functions but vary in their environmental tolerances/preferences; this functional redundancy is referred to as an “insurance effect” (Yachi and Loreau 1999). In the context of agriculture, management practices can affect resilience, with lower resilience expected where external inputs are high and crop diversity is low compared with systems that promote crop diversity and maintain habitat heterogeneity (van Bruggen and Semenov 2000; Oliver et al. 2015). Soil organic matter plays a role in maintaining resilient ecosystems by promoting microbial diversity as well as soil aggregation and structure that is more resistant to erosion caused by high-intensity rainfall or wind events (Lehmann and Kleber 2015).
BOX 3-3
Soil Organic Matter
The formation and stability of soil organic matter (SOM) are important both because of its behavior as a physical and chemical component of soil and its role as a reservoir of nutrients for plants such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur that can be released by soil microorganisms during decomposition. Carbon is also an energy source for microorganisms. SOM is a broad category of organic soil components that originate from plant and animal residues that enter the soil and exist in varying stages of decomposition and use by soil biota, including as dead microbial cells (Sokol et al. 2022). Some SOM is protected from further decomposition by being physically protected within soil aggregates, by being chemically adhered to soil mineral particles, or simply by possessing a high molecular diversity and stochastic co-occurrence with soil microbes that make it energetically too costly to decompose (Lehmann and Kleber 2015; Lehmann et al. 2020). SOM components range in size from dissolved organic molecules less than 0.045 mm to larger particulate organic matter up to 2 mm and range in composition from individual amino acids or sugars to larger and more complex compounds such as lignin, cellulose, and polyphenols. Depending on the location and chemical complexity of SOM in soil, they can cycle in relatively short (e.g., “active pool,” < 10 years) to more persistent or recalcitrant (e.g., “passive pool,” many decades to centuries) timescales (Lavallee et al. 2020).
Although SOM is a small and often intangible component of soil compared to the mineral sand, silt, and clay particles, its physical, chemical, and biological impacts are disproportionally larger. Small, chemically charged SOM particles contribute substantially to soil chemical properties and ion (e.g., nutrient) exchange and retention capacity (Curtin and Rostad 1997). Pyrolyzed forms of SOM from plant and animal residues such as biochar amendments or “black carbon” also increase nutrient exchange and retention in soils due to their high surface area and complex, chemically charged structures (Liang et al. 2006; Tomczyk et al. 2020). The enormous capacity for ion exchange and retention of SOM also helps buffer soil against sudden changes in pH (Curtin and Rostad 1997). SOM further contributes to aggregate stabilization and building soil structure, which aids in carbon sequestration alongside improved air and water movement and provides spatially diverse habitats for soil biota (Six et al. 2000).
SOURCE: The Fertilizer Institute.
the bacteria in turn receive carbohydrates from the plants. Nitrogen usable by plants can also become available in soil when bacteria and fungi decompose dead plants and animals, converting nitrogen in the dead organisms into NH4+ through a process called mineralization (Li et al. 2019).
Plants can use ammonia and ammonium, but some plants prefer NO3- as their nitrogen source. Ammonia and ammonium can be converted to NO3- through the process of nitrification, in which certain types of bacteria and archaea alter NH3 and NH4+ into nitrite (NO2), and other bacteria convert the nitrite to nitrate. Nitrate not taken up by plants can return to the atmosphere, either by directly volatizing from soil or by leaching into waterways and then volatizing from the water’s surface, through denitrification, the process by which other types of bacteria convert nitrate back into N2 or into nitrous oxide (N2O) (Z. Li et al. 2022).
An essential regulating service that helps with the production of food and oxygen through plant growth, the nitrogen cycle also presently causes harm to human health because of anthropogenic additions of nitrogen to the environment. In the context of U.S. agriculture, nitrogen is frequently applied to cropland in forms such as synthetic fertilizer, manure, and biosolids (see Chapter 4). However, only 25 percent of the nitrogen applied is taken up by crops on average (Lehman et al. 2015). The excess nitrogen cascades into the environment, harming environmental and human health as it moves from farms to waterways and into the atmosphere (Galloway et al. 2003). In the form of nitrate, nitrogen can leach from agricultural fields, enter groundwater, and contaminate drinking water. High levels of nitrate in drinking water can cause health problems such as methemoglobinemia, or “blue baby” syndrome, which occurs most often in infants who drink formula made with nitrate-rich water. The nitrate reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (Ward et al. 2018). Excess nitrogen (and phosphorus) in surface water causes eutrophication, that is, the overabundant growth of algae and aquatic plants. The plant overgrowth can change sediment deposition in streams, adversely affecting habitat for fish and invertebrates whereas the decomposition of algal biomass depletes oxygen, killing fish and other aquatic life forms (Munn et al. 2018). Harmful algal blooms fed by excess nitrogen and phosphorus can also pollute drinking water, reduce availability of aquatic food sources to harvesters and consumers, and constrain people’s access to water for productive and health-enhancing recreational activities.
Furthermore, soils are the largest natural source of N2O, a potent greenhouse gas. Agriculture (from synthetic fertilizer use and manure management) is the largest anthropogenic source of N2O (Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2013; Canadell et al. 2021). Soils can sometimes act as a sink, consuming N2O, but the magnitude and impact are not significant (Schlesinger 2013). Overall, soils are a source of N2O, with flux dynamics strongly influenced by soil nutrient and other management practices in combination with natural factors such as temperature and rainfall. Along with its contributions to global warming, airborne nitrogen pollution can affect human health by reacting with other pollutants, leading to the formation of particulate matter (Wyer et al. 2022), and contributing to acid rain and eutrophication (Sutton et al. 2009).
Carbon Cycling
Carbon dioxide continually cycles between the atmosphere and soils (Figure 3-3). Atmospheric CO2 is taken up by plants during photosynthesis, and a portion of this carbon ultimately reaches soils in the form of organic compounds released from roots, root exudates, plant litter, and animal droppings. Carbon dioxide is emitted back to the atmosphere when organic compounds decompose and as the product of respiration by soil-dwelling micro- and macroorganisms as well as plant roots. Land use and land use change strongly influence soil carbon dynamics.
Soils regulate climate through their role as a globally significant carbon sink. The top 1 meter of the world’s soils is estimated to contain up to 2,500 gigatons of carbon (GtC)—nearly three times more carbon than is in the atmosphere and four times more
SOURCE: © UCAR 2024.
than in vegetation globally (Friedlingstein et al. 2020; Lal et al. 2021). Another 800 GtC of organic carbon are estimated to be stored in the second and third meters of soil (Jobbágy and Jackson 2000). Soil carbon stocks are composed of both organic and inorganic forms, each with bearing on climate regulation.
Soil organic carbon (SOC), the carbon contained in organic compounds within the soil, accounts for approximately 60 percent of the total global soil carbon pool (Lal 2008) and is highly susceptible to human perturbation. Most carbon lost from soils to the atmosphere is in the form of CO2. Land use change (primarily deforestation and conversion to agriculture) is thought to have been a significant source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions for the past 8,000 years—far preceding the industrial revolution (Ruddiman 2003). Current rates of CO2 emissions due to land use, land use change, and forestry are estimated at 1.3 GtC per year (compared to the 9.6 GtC per year from combustion of fossil fuels) for the period 2013–2021 (Friedlingstein et al. 2023).
Soil inorganic carbon (SIC) refers to soil carbon in mineral form, primarily as calcium and magnesium carbonates. SIC, like SOC, is also a globally significant carbon pool (approximately 940 GtC), and its spatial distribution tends to vary inversely with SOC. SOC concentrations are typically higher in humid regions and SIC concentration typically higher in arid and semi-arid regions, although positive correlation between the two has also been reported (Lal et al. 2021; Naorem et al. 2022). SIC is formed via several pathways, including the chemical weathering of calcium and magnesium silicates, which consumes CO2 (Lal et al. 2021; Naorem et al. 2022). As arid soils age, carbon may be sequestered as SIC over thousands to tens of thousands of years, making soil age an important factor when considering global carbon sequestration. In contrast to SIC, SOC can approach a state of equilibrium over tens to hundreds of years (Lal et al. 2021).
Like CO2, methane (CH4) is a carbon-containing GHG that is naturally produced and consumed by soils and can play a significant role in global climate regulation (Canadell et al. 2021). Methane is produced in soils during the microbially mediated decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic conditions. While waterlogged soils, such as those found in wetlands and rice paddies, constitute the most prominent pedogenic sources, CH4 may also be produced when non-flooded soils experience anaerobic conditions or in anaerobic pockets or during the process of anaerobic soil disinfestation (Kim et al. 2012; Prescott et al. 2023; Wan et al. 2023). Soils also remove CH4 from the atmosphere due to the activity of methanotrophic microbes, which metabolize it as their source of carbon and energy; this activity accounts for up to 5 percent of the total CH4 sink globally (Saunois et al. 2020; Canadell et al. 2021). Soil CH4 flux dynamics are influenced not only by physical conditions, such as soil moisture and aeration, but also by microbial activity. In addition, vegetation enables oxygen transport to the rhizosphere and can serve as a conduit for CH4 transport from soils to the atmosphere (Kim et al. 2012; Conrad 2020; Canadell et al. 2021). Thus, soil health and management have the potential to influence soil CH4 dynamics via multiple pathways.
GHG emissions, from soil nutrient cycles or other sources, contribute to global warming when the global warming potential of gases emitted exceeds that of the processes that sequester or remove these gases from the atmosphere.1 The detrimental effects of global warming on human health are numerous and predicted to increase (Hayden et al. 2023). Land management practices present opportunities to counteract GHG emissions. For example, land restoration or land use change to less disturbed management systems (e.g., from annual cropping to pasture or forest) typically results in increased SOC concentrations (Guo and Gifford 2002). The rate of CO2 uptake by land (soil and vegetation) globally was estimated to be 3.3 GtC per year for the 2013–2022 period (Friedlingstein et al. 2023). Overall, the opportunity for carbon sequestration and GHG emission reduction through land use and land restoration-based strategies comprises one of the areas with the greatest projected climate change mitigation
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1 Global warming potential (GWP) measures the amount of energy that the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will trap over a set period of time as compared to the emissions of 1 ton of CO2. Over 100 years, non-fossil CH4 has a GWP of 27. Over the same time period, N2O has a GWP of 273 (Forster et al. 2021).
potential—on par with (though likely more costly and therefore more difficult to achieve than) wind and solar energy (IPCC 2022b).
Importantly, soil restoration and carbon sequestration—processes that are of critical importance for climate regulation—are also closely correlated with the building and maintenance of soil health. Concentrations of SOM and SOC are tightly linked, with carbon typically making up about half of SOM by mass (Pribyl 2010). Thus, increases in SOC concentration are associated with increases in SOM, and increased SOM is associated with greater microbial diversity and activity, enhanced soil physical structure, and various other indicators of soil health (see the section “Indicators of Soil Health” in Chapter 4). Intriguingly, when soil is restored, soil biological networks have been found to become more tightly connected and enhance carbon uptake (Morriën et al. 2017), further highlighting the reciprocity between soil health and soils’ climate-regulating function.
Furthermore, while significant short-term opportunities exist to sequester SOC in soils where it has been depleted due to land use change, the role of SIC on climate regulation operates over a wider range of timescales. Enhanced mineral weathering in soil is a climate change mitigation strategy that applies crushed silicate rock amendments, such as basalt or olivine, to break down in soils and capture and store atmospheric CO2 in solid form in soil (Andrews and Taylor 2019; Calabrese et al. 2022). The technology can potentially help in climate change mitigation and enhance soil fertility. Its feasibility for widespread use in U.S. cropping systems is under investigation with promising preliminary results, though further research is needed to assess scalability and environmental impacts (Calabrese et al. 2022; Beerling et al. 2024).
Soil Surface and Albedo
The character of the soil surface over large areas may also impact climate regulation by affecting albedo. In agricultural settings, some soil amendments, such as biochar and manure, darken the soil surface and can reduce albedo (meaning that more light energy is absorbed, which contributes to warming), whereas crop residue cover and reduced tillage contribute to higher albedo. Soil management practices such as tillage and manure application can also affect rates of snow melt, which can further influence albedo (i.e., faster snowmelt means lower average albedo) (Kunkel et al. 1999; Stock et al. 2019; Lal et al. 2021).
Water Regulation
Soil’s piece of the water cycle is instrumental to the provision of clean water, clearly a regulating service as well as one of the objectives of One Health (Figure 3-4). Soils with enough large pores and high aggregate stability allow precipitation to infiltrate the ground, preventing erosion and runoff, which would otherwise carry nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants into surface water bodies. Soil also acts as a natural filter. As gravity pulls water down through the soil, contaminants it may carry can be trapped in soil pores, bound to clay minerals or organic matter, or degraded by
SOURCE: © UCAR 2024.
soil organisms (Keesstra et al. 2012). Soil’s ability to hold moisture is also obviously key to the productivity of plants and thus the provision of food.
Healthy soils promote hydrologic processes that benefit human health such as purification of water resources, regulation of leaching of nutrients or contaminants, and control of floods. Improving properties such as soil aggregation, structure, and SOC/SOM that enhance nutrient and water movement and storage are critical for efficiently managing scarce water supplies in agricultural systems (Acevedo et al. 2022). For example, water tends to infiltrate or enter the soil more quickly in sandy-textured soils or those with larger aggregates and pore spaces at the soil surface, which in turn reduces ponding or flooding. Yet, this rapid movement of water in coarse-textured soils can be detrimental if it accelerates leaching of excess nutrients or contaminants such as NO3- to groundwater (Donner et al. 2004; Kurunc et al. 2011). Low SOC and SOM, which is frequent in sandy-textured soils, further reduces the capacity to adsorb and remove contaminants from leaching water (Li et al. 2023) because increased SOM
helps increase the retention of pollutants in the biologically active surface layer until they can be degraded by soil biota (Neumann et al. 2014).
SOM also improves soil water infiltration and storage (Bagnall et al. 2022; Kharel et al. 2023), which helps protect soils and crop yields against drought (Kane et al. 2021). Compared to sandy-textured soils, soils with higher clay contents and porosity have higher ion exchange capacity and thus can more tightly hold greater amounts of water and accrue more SOC and SOM (Schimel et al. 1994), which can both slow the movement of contaminants to groundwater and allow more time for chemical or biological removal of contaminants (Montoya et al. 2006). Even within high-clay soils, differing mineralogy and weathering can significantly affect adsorption and movement of excess nutrients or contaminants, where less-weathered clay minerals with higher surface areas are more effective at fixing or removing excess nutrients from the soil solution (Nortjé and Laker 2021). Soil texture and mineralogy are not typically responsive to management practices, but managing soils to improve aggregation, structure, and soil carbon can help improve soil water retention and availability for plants, reduce flooding or ponding, and reduce movement of excess nutrients and contaminants into groundwater systems.
Suppression of Plant Disease
The ability by some soils to suppress disease has been known for more than 60 years (Menzies 1959) and can be an important function of healthy soils (van Bruggen and Semenov 2000). Development of disease-suppressive soil is an example of a positive plant–soil feedback that can benefit future plant productivity through the lasting effects of plant–soil interactions (Mariotte et al. 2018). The focus on this NCP has been in agricultural systems, where worldwide crop losses can amount to more than 15 percent of the attainable yield (Oerke 2006); however, it is also highly relevant for plant health in nonagricultural soils. Disease suppression does not refer to the complete elimination of soil-borne pathogens, but to the reduction in soil-borne diseases where host plants and pathogens are present and environmental conditions are conducive (Jayaraman et al. 2021). Suppression can be broadly classified into “general,” “induced,” and “specific,” although it should be noted that these are not distinct categories; rather, soils exist in a continuum of suppressiveness (Raaijmakers et al. 2009). General suppressiveness is an innate nonspecific phenomenon of soil, where its resident microbiome controls various soil-borne pathogens via competitive or antagonistic activities; induced defense refers to biotic and abiotic agents that can trigger systemic resistance in plants against invading pathogens; and specific suppression involves particular microbial species or groups (Schlatter et al. 2017; Sagova-Mareckova et al. 2023). An example of the latter is members of the genus Trichoderma fungi that have been commercially marketed as biopesticides due to their ability to protect plants under a range of soil conditions (Woo et al. 2023). Disease suppression is not restricted to soil microbes, however: protists (unicellular eukaryotes) as well as nematodes can reduce bacterial pathogens by exuding bactericides or by selective feeding (Gao et al. 2019; Martins et al. 2022). Likewise, an emerging—but largely untapped—biocontrol potential involves viruses that predate bacterial and fungal pathogens (Martins et al. 2022; Enebe and Erasmus 2024).
Due to the complexity of soils and the many factors that influence plant–microbe–soil interactions, disease suppression is currently difficult to predict (Sagova-Mareckova et al. 2023), although recent attempts to use molecular tools to identify individual taxa as well as responses in microbial network structures associated with disease are promising (Batista et al. 2024). The presence, transport, and persistence of pathogens within soils that contribute to plant, animal, and human diseases are regulated by many of the same physical, chemical, and biological constraints as beneficial microorganisms, such as soil structure, pH, nutrients, and organic matter (Janvier et al. 2007; Ghorbani et al. 2008; Lekberg et al. 2021) and interaction with other soil biota (Jayaraman et al. 2021). In agricultural settings, many management practices that promote microbial abundance and diversity—such as crop rotations, cover crops, residue retention, minimum tillage, and compost or manure addition—have also been shown to promote disease suppression (Ghorbani et al. 2008; Jayaraman et al. 2021).
NONMATERIAL NATURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEOPLE
Nonmaterial contributions from soil to people are the often intangible ways that soils influence humans and human systems, including soil and ecosystem effects on individual or societal experiences, behavior, values, and organization. The specific types of contributions include cultural and social value; community engagement and participation; educational opportunities; aesthetic and inspirational value; biodiversity conservation; sense of ownership and stewardship; health and well-being; cultural practices and traditions; and recreation and outdoor activities (Chan et al. 2012; Milcu et al. 2013). Many of these aspects relate not only to individual or population-level health and wellness outcomes through interactions with soil and nature, but also to human well-being and security through stable economic systems that rely on healthy soils.
Disconnection of humans from soil is considered by many to have contributed to agricultural unsustainability and environmental degradation, with significant societal consequences (Hillel 1992). Soil traditionally played a role in many traditions and practices of farmers throughout the world (Hillel 1992; Fitter et al. 2010). Many philosophical systems and religions associate soils with spirituality, considering it a source of vitality and generative power (Minami 2009).
The emergence of the concept of “soil health” reflects a growing recognition of soil’s vitality, capacity to be rejuvenated, and the need to improve how practitioners, policymakers, and citizens, among others, relate to soil (Krzywoszynska 2019; Puig de la Bellacasa 2019). Although soil health and the role of soil in NCPs are not emphasized in calls to improve human–nature connectedness as an intervention pathway for ongoing climate and environmental crises (Richardson et al. 2020; Riechers et al. 2021), healthy soil as the basis for natural, agricultural, and urban ecosystems is the foundation of human–nature connections.
Soil is an integral part of various art forms and cultural traditions (Feller et al. 2015; Toland et al. 2018). From pottery to landscape paintings, soil has served as both a medium and a subject in artwork. Soils are also repositories of human cultural heritage, preserving physical artifacts and historical sites (Adhikari and Hartemink 2016). Local
knowledge of soils, known as ethnopedology, provides cultural context and experience that, in turn, guides sustainable land management practices appropriate for specific regions (Barrera-Bassols and Zinck 2003).
Natural spaces, and their soils, offer social, recreational, and therapeutic benefits to humans (Fitter et al. 2010). Connection to soil is increasingly recognized for its positive impact on mental and physical health, such as in movements like Nature Rx and the creation of healing gardens (Marcus and Sachs 2014; Kondo et al. 2020). Multiple reviews have explored how natural environments and greenspaces are beneficial to human health and how protecting these areas and the soils that support them is more critical than ever as greater proportions of people populate urban areas (Jackson et al. 2013; Hurly and Walker 2019). For example, improved connections to nature and access to greenspaces has been linked to individual health improvements, such as alleviating post-traumatic stress disorder in veterans (Varning Poulsen 2017) and better behavior in children (Roe and Aspinall 2011), and to community-level health improvements, such as better cardiovascular health (Chen et al. 2020) and lower rates of infant mortality (Schinasi et al. 2019). Researchers have also found positive effects of quiet natural spaces and soundscapes on human stress relief and recovery (Buxton et al. 2021) and on restoring attention spans and concentration (Ohly et al. 2016).
In other words, in addition to the multitude of material and regulating NCPs discussed earlier in this chapter, an underrated but critical way that nature, supported by healthy, unsealed soil, improves human health and well-being is simply through providing verdant, calming spaces that offer restorative peace and quiet. Furthermore, a recent study conducted in Youngstown, Ohio, demonstrated that communities that engage in greening vacant lots in cities can reduce violent crime in the surrounding streets by improving both the physical and social environment, even more than adding professional maintenance of the lots not implemented by the community (Gong et al. 2023). This finding builds on earlier research demonstrating that community engagement in maintaining and greening vacant lots can reduce violent crime in the area by nearly 40 percent and improve community members’ safety and well-being (Heinze et al. 2018).
Given these benefits to both individual and community health, increasing focus has been placed on improving access to and quality of greenspaces in urban environments. However, the relative health benefits of improved access to natural areas and urban greenspaces are heavily influenced by socioeconomic and cultural factors and inequalities (Hurly and Walker 2019). Simply adding more parks or recreational areas may not increase physical activity in communities with low social cohesion and inclusion or poor public transportation (Seaman et al. 2010; Price et al. 2023) and may in fact exacerbate social exclusion (Jelks et al. 2021). Further, a long-term study conducted in Philadelphia found that more accessible and higher-quality urban parks and open spaces helped reduce health and mortality inequities in marginalized neighborhoods, especially those with inequities based in racialized residential segregation and economic deprivation (Schinasi et al. 2023). However, the authors warned against the unintended long-term outcomes of gentrification and community exclusion when adding or modifying greenspaces as a tool to improve public health (Schinasi et al. 2023).
TRADE-OFFS AMONG NATURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEOPLE
Maximizing food production (by focusing solely on a material NCP) has often been achieved in ways that negatively affect regulating NCPs, which underpin the capacity of a soil to produce food. For example, the Green Revolution in agricultural production, which took hold in the mid-20th century, increased biomass yields of cereal crops substantially, but the concomitant intensive use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides is also often associated with degraded soils, reduced air and water quality, and alterations in nutrient cycling (Tilman et al. 2002; Smith et al. 2015). Another example is the conversion of wildland to agriculture, which increases food production while at the same time typically reducing soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity, the regulation of water flow and quality, and potentially the cultural and esthetic value of the landscape (Smith et al. 2015). These outcomes highlight trade-offs among NCPs, in which the promotion of material NCPs come at the expense of regulating or nonmaterial NCPs (DeFries et al. 2005; Foley et al. 2005; Stavi et al. 2016).
Trade-offs among NCPs are also often on display across different crop production systems. For example, Wittwer et al. (2021) used a long-term farming system experiment in Switzerland to show the highest yields associated with conventional, high-input cropping systems whereas organic and conservation agricultural2 systems harbored greater biodiversity, soil and water quality, and climate mitigation but exhibited relatively lower yields. Trade-offs can also occur within categories of NCPs, such as in the case of the Palouse River watershed of the U.S. Pacific Northwest where no-till management may reduce erosion and promote SOM but accelerate soil acidification (Davis et al. 2023).
Trade-offs may also be considered alongside co-benefits and in conjunction with socioeconomic factors. For instance, policies and incentives that promote soil carbon sequestration for climate-mitigation purposes have the co-benefit of enhancing numerous other regulating NCPs due to the positive impact of increased SOC on soil health. However, when soil carbon sequestration incentives take the form of marketable carbon offsets, they introduce a notable trade-off within a single NCP: between the sequestration of organic carbon on the one hand—aiding in climate regulation—and the potential for further emissions of fossil carbon on the other hand (Oldfield et al. 2021).
USDA has programs that prioritize regulating NCPs over food production or that encourage producers to adopt practices that support nonmaterial NCPs. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), for example, pays producers to take land that is highly erodible or environmentally sensitive out of production (Hellerstein 2017). In addition to protecting soil from erosion, CRP land creates habitat for wildlife. The program is also a vehicle for protecting wetlands. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program assists producers with the adoption of conservation practices on working lands (Stubbs 2022). However, adoption of such practices can be difficult if an economic loss occurs. Therefore, when it comes to food production, a pressing challenge is to identify, quantify, and minimize trade-offs between productivity and ecosystem health. Given the
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2 In the study cited, conservation agriculture followed these practices: minimum tillage, 6-year crop rotation, and permanent soil cover with crop residues and cover crops (Wittwer et al. 2021).
expected increasing frequency and duration of extreme weather and climate events due to global warming (Leung et al. 2023), identifying factors and management practices that contribute to resilience will also become increasingly important.
Complex models have been developed to quantify and assess trade-offs (Sanou et al. 2023). However, most are too cumbersome to inform decisions that a producer needs to make each day or each season. Tools that rely on remote sensing and GIS applications hold promise for providing real-time information to producers to assess trade-offs between food production and other NCPs (Sanou et al. 2023).
CONCLUSIONS
Soil is fundamental to human health. While the importance of soil for food production is easily appreciated, other services have received less recognition. These include nutrient, water, and air quality regulation and providing habitat for soil biota that conduct many essential functions in soils and harbor resources for potential future medicines. There is also an increasing awareness of the importance of soil for climate regulation due to its ability to sequester and release large amounts of carbon and other GHGs and of the role of healthy soils in supporting educational, cultural, and spiritual health and well-being. Recommendations for enhancing human health via soil-mediated NCPs revolve primarily around raising awareness of the many essential regulating and nonmaterial roles of soil, characterizing and monitoring NCPs to avoid detrimental trade-offs, preserving soil habitat and biodiversity, and enhancing soil-mediated NCPs within and across landscapes.
Awareness
Broader societal awareness of the role of soil in providing essential NCPs—and in the importance of these NCPs to promoting and sustaining the health of both individuals and populations—is an overarching priority. While soil-mediated NCPs comprise largely indirect linkages between soil health and human health, they are of supreme importance. For example, both natural and working lands play a significant role in global CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes, and they are interlinked with global carbon and nitrogen cycles. The critical importance of soil processes in climate regulation establishes a profound link to human health. As climate change leads to rising temperatures, increased occurrences of extreme weather events, and myriad disruptions to natural cycles and ecosystems, these factors, in turn, have far-reaching consequences to the stability and security of food production systems, natural resource provisioning, and the exposure of populations to climate-related health risks such as heatwaves, wildfires, and water-, food-, and vector-borne diseases (IPCC 2022a).
Climate regulation is just one example of how healthy, functioning soils constitute one of the fundamental pillars regulating earth systems on which humans depend for survival. Breakdown of these systems would threaten not only the sustainable provisioning of food but also the livable environment more broadly. Therefore, it is imperative that entities concerned with the contributions of soil to the well-being of people make
the value of these essential services widely known. Many federal agencies have a role to play in such a campaign. USDA is primarily concerned with the health of soil for food production, but habitat issues, such as for pollinators, also fall within its areas of interest. The habitat supported by soil is also important to agencies such as the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, and the Bureau of Land Management. Beyond the federal government, the Soil Science Society of America, and its sister societies the American Society of Agronomy and the Crop Science Society of America, have ongoing efforts to draw attention to the importance of soils, and other scientific societies, such as the American Society of Microbiology, the American Phytopathological Society, the Entomological Society of America, and the Ecological Society of America, have given increasing attention to the soil microbiome and soil habitat in recent years. Many of these agencies and societies have already started public messaging campaigns to communicate the importance of soil to the general public, as has the Food and Agriculture Organization, which successfully persuaded the United Nations General Assembly to recognize an annual World Soil Day, starting in 2014. Such public awareness efforts are warranted and should be continued to help ensure that the value of soil functions is recognized.
Recommendation 3-1: Federal agencies and scientific societies should continue their work to promote the public awareness of the importance of soil health and its societal value beyond its immediate material benefits.
Quantification
While the value of material NCPs are frequently realized internally to an enterprise, the risks associated with degradation of regulating and nonmaterial NCPs are more frequently external and borne by society at varying spatial scales. Raising awareness, understanding, and clear-eyed management of these trade-offs both within and among NCPs is therefore a challenge that belongs not only to researchers and land managers but also to society more broadly. For example, it involves improving empirical understanding of how NCPs—for which some basis to measure contributing properties already exist, such as outcomes related to carbon and nitrogen cycling or soil structure and stability—affect human health and societal outcomes such as food security or agriculture-based livelihoods. It also requires new efforts to better determine and measure the individual processes or properties related to more general NCPs (such as disease suppression) and the nonmaterial NCPs related to human health and community well-being (such as the interconnected environmental, structural, and societal properties that regulate availability and use of high-quality greenspaces and natural areas). Improving the quantification of NCPs will improve the ability to value them against one another and to communicate their importance to the public.
Recommendation 3-2: USDA and other agencies should prioritize research to better characterize and monitor NCPs (e.g., nitrogen cycling or the nonmaterial NCPs related to human health), to understand the underlying
mechanisms to improve predictions (e.g., disease suppression), and to assess their importance across different scales (e.g., plot to landscape and upward). This research should be translated into tools that can be used by land managers in agricultural and nonagricultural settings to inform decisions that involve trade-offs among NCPs.
Preservation
Better characterization and monitoring of NCPs will support efforts to preserve soil. It is likely that resources within the soil that have not yet been discovered are lost each day to erosion, urbanization, and deforestation. Preservation of soil biodiversity needs greater prioritization in general habitat management because it is critical for current services (such as building materials and food provision), potential future services (e.g., undiscovered antibiotics), and the capacity for resilience. Preservation of soil also prevents water and air pollution from dust and sediment, maintains habitat for other organisms, and protects nonmaterial NCPs.
Recommendation 3-3: Land managers and city planners should manage landscapes in a way that preserves and promotes soil habitat and biodiversity by minimizing disturbance and soil sealing and optimizing plant cover and diversity wherever possible.
Enhancing Nature’s Contributions to People for Targeted Benefits
NCPs hold the potential to deliver greater benefits, but the mechanisms underlying many of them are poorly understood. As discussed above, certain soils have the ability to suppress diseases, the knowledge of which could be highly beneficial in cropping systems, either through development of new management practices or via inoculation of selective taxa. However, deeper understanding of underlying mechanisms and their context dependency is needed before these benefits can be fully realized. Similarly, enhanced mineral weathering approaches could potentially capture and store atmospheric CO2 in solid form in soil, but their feasibility needs further investigation. It is also possible that benefits from enhanced NCPs can cascade to adjacent landscapes. For example, preserving wetlands enhances water regulation in adjacent cropland. However, modeling to understand these interactions and how they might be enhanced is still in the early stages.
Recommendation 3-4: USDA, the U.S. Geological Survey, and other agencies involved in land management should support research that explores the mechanisms driving soil-derived regulating NCPs and approaches through which their benefits can be enhanced.
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