JavaScript

What is JavaScript ?

JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language. JavaScript is a

dynamic computer programming language. It is most commonly used as a part of web
pages, whose implementations allow client-side script to interact with the user and
make dynamic pages. It is an interpreted programming language with object-oriented
capabilities.
It is designed for creating network-centric applications. It is complimentary to and
integrated with Java. JavaScript is very easy to implement because it is integrated
with HTML. It is open and cross-platform.

JavaScript was first known as LiveScript, but Netscape changed its name to
JavaScript, possibly because of the excitement being generated by Java. JavaScript
made its first appearance in Netscape 2.0 in 1995 with the name LiveScript. The
general-purpose core of the language has been embedded in Netscape, Internet
Explorer, and other web browsers.
The ECMA-262 Specification defined a standard version of the core JavaScript
language.

• JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language.

• Designed for creating network-centric applications.
• Complementary to and integrated with Java.
• Complementary to and integrated with HTML.
• Open and cross-platform

Client-Side JavaScript

Client-side JavaScript is the most common form of the language. The script should be
included in or referenced by an HTML document for the code to be interpreted by the
browser.
It means that a web page need not be a static HTML, but can include programs that
interact with the user, control the browser, and dynamically create HTML content.
The JavaScript client-side mechanism provides many advantages over traditional CGI
server-side scripts. For example, you might use JavaScript to check if the user has
entered a valid e-mail address in a form field.
The JavaScript code is executed when the user submits the form, and only if all the
entries are valid, they would be submitted to the Web Server.
JavaScript can be used to trap user-initiated events such as button clicks, link
navigation, and other actions that the user initiates explicitly or implicitly.

Advantages of JavaScript

The merits of using JavaScript are −

• Less server interaction − You can validate user input before sending the page
off to the server. This saves server traffic, which means less load on your server.
• Immediate feedback to the visitors − They don't have to wait for a page reload
to see if they have forgotten to enter something.
• Increased interactivity − You can create interfaces that react when the user
hovers over them with a mouse or activates them via the keyboard.
• Richer interfaces − You can use JavaScript to include such items as drag-and-
drop components and sliders to give a Rich Interface to your site visitors.

Limitations of JavaScript

We cannot treat JavaScript as a full-fledged programming language. It lacks the

following important features −
• Client-side JavaScript does not allow the reading or writing of files. This has
been kept for security reason.
• JavaScript cannot be used for networking applications because there is no such
support available.
• JavaScript doesn't have any multi-threading or multiprocessor capabilities.
Once again, JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language that allows
you to build interactivity into otherwise static HTML pages.

JavaScript Development Tools

One of major strengths of JavaScript is that it does not require expensive development
tools. You can start with a simple text editor such as Notepad. Since it is an interpreted
language inside the context of a web browser, you don't even need to buy a compiler.
To make our life simpler, various vendors have come up with very nice JavaScript
editing tools. Some of them are listed here −
• Microsoft FrontPage − Microsoft has developed a popular HTML editor called
FrontPage. FrontPage also provides web developers with a number of
JavaScript tools to assist in the creation of interactive websites.
 • Macromedia Dreamweaver MX − Macromedia Dreamweaver MX is a very
popular HTML and JavaScript editor in the professional web development
crowd. It provides several handy prebuilt JavaScript components, integrates
well with databases, and conforms to new standards such as XHTML and XML.
• Macromedia HomeSite 5 − HomeSite 5 is a well-liked HTML and JavaScript
editor from Macromedia that can be used to manage personal websites
effectively.

Where is JavaScript Today ?

The ECMAScript Edition 5 standard will be the first update to be released in over four
years. JavaScript 2.0 conforms to Edition 5 of the ECMAScript standard, and the
difference between the two is extremely minor.
The specification for JavaScript 2.0 can be found on the following
site: [Link]
Today, Netscape's JavaScript and Microsoft's JScript conform to the ECMAScript
standard, although both the languages still support the features that are not a part of
the standard
avaScript can be implemented using JavaScript statements that are placed within
the <script>... </script> HTML tags in a web page.
You can place the <script> tags, containing your JavaScript, anywhere within your
web page, but it is normally recommended that you should keep it within
the <head> tags.
The <script> tag alerts the browser program to start interpreting all the text between
these tags as a script. A simple syntax of your JavaScript will appear as follows.
<script ...>
JavaScript code
</script>
The script tag takes two important attributes −
• Language − This attribute specifies what scripting language you are using.
Typically, its value will be javascript. Although recent versions of HTML (and
XHTML, its successor) have phased out the use of this attribute.
• Type − This attribute is what is now recommended to indicate the scripting
language in use and its value should be set to "text/javascript".
So your JavaScript segment will look like −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
JavaScript code
</script>
Your First JavaScript Code

Let us take a sample example to print out "Hello World". We added an optional HTML
comment that surrounds our JavaScript code. This is to save our code from a browser
that does not support JavaScript. The comment ends with a "//-->". Here "//" signifies
a comment in JavaScript, so we add that to prevent a browser from reading the end of
the HTML comment as a piece of JavaScript code. Next, we call a
function [Link] which writes a string into our HTML document.
This function can be used to write text, HTML, or both. Take a look at the following
code.
<html>
<body>
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following result −
Hello World!

Why to Learn Javascript

Javascript is a MUST for students and working professionals to become a great

Software Engineer specially when they are working in Web Development Domain. I
will list down some of the key advantages of learning Javascript:
• Javascript is the most popular programming language in the world and that
makes it a programmer’s great choice. Once you learnt Javascript, it helps you
developing great front-end as well as back-end softwares using different
Javascript based frameworks like jQuery, [Link] etc.
• Javascript is everywhere, it comes installed on every modern web browser and
so to learn Javascript you really do not need any special environment setup. For
example Chrome, Mozilla Firefox , Safari and every browser you know as of
today, supports Javascript.
• Javascript helps you create really beautiful and crazy fast websites. You can
develop your website with a console like look and feel and give your users the
best Graphical User Experience.
 • JavaScript usage has now extended to mobile app development, desktop app
development, and game development. This opens many opportunities for you
as Javascript Programmer.
• Due to high demand, there is tons of job growth and high pay for those who
know JavaScript. You can navigate over to different job sites to see what having
JavaScript skills looks like in the job market.
• Great thing about Javascript is that you will find tons of frameworks and
Libraries already developed which can be used directly in your software
development to reduce your time to market.
There could be 1000s of good reasons to learn Javascript Programming. But one thing
for sure, to learn any programming language, not only Javascript, you just need to
code, and code and finally code until you become expert.

Hello World using Javascript

Just to give you a little excitement about Javascript programming, I'm going to give
you a small conventional Javascript Hello World program, You can try it using Demo
link
<html>
<body>
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
There are many useful Javascript frameworks and libraries available:
• Angular
• React
• jQuery
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]
• Meteor
• Mithril
• [Link]
 • Polymer
• Aurelia
• [Link]
It is really impossible to give a complete list of all the available Javascript frameworks
and libraries. The Javascript world is just too large and too much new is happening.

Applications of Javascript Programming

As mentioned before, Javascript is one of the most widely used programming

languages (Front-end as well as Back-end). It has it's presence in almost every area
of software development. I'm going to list few of them here:
• Client side validation - This is really important to verify any user input before
submitting it to the server and Javascript plays an important role in validting
those inputs at front-end itself.
• Manipulating HTML Pages - Javascript helps in manipulating HTML page on
the fly. This helps in adding and deleting any HTML tag very easily using
javascript and modify your HTML to change its look and feel based on different
devices and requirements.
• User Notifications - You can use Javascript to raise dynamic pop-ups on the
webpages to give different types of notifications to your website visitors.
• Back-end Data Loading - Javascript provides Ajax library which helps in
loading back-end data while you are doing some other processing. This really
gives an amazing experience to your website visitors.
• Presentations - JavaScript also provides the facility of creating presentations
which gives website look and feel. JavaScript provides RevealJS and
BespokeJS libraries to build a web-based slide presentations.
• Server Applications - Node JS is built on Chrome's Javascript runtime for
building fast and scalable network applications. This is an event based library
which helps in developing very sophisticated server applications including Web
Servers.

Whitespace and Line Breaks

JavaScript ignores spaces, tabs, and newlines that appear in JavaScript programs. You
can use spaces, tabs, and newlines freely in your program and you are free to format
and indent your programs in a neat and consistent way that makes the code easy to
read and understand.
Semicolons are Optional

Simple statements in JavaScript are generally followed by a semicolon character, just

as they are in C, C++, and Java. JavaScript, however, allows you to omit this
semicolon if each of your statements are placed on a separate line. For example, the
following code could be written without semicolons.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10
var2 = 20
//-->
</script>
But when formatted in a single line as follows, you must use semicolons −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10; var2 = 20;
//-->
</script>
Note − It is a good programming practice to use semicolons.

Case Sensitivity

JavaScript is a case-sensitive language. This means that the language keywords,

variables, function names, and any other identifiers must always be typed with a
consistent capitalization of letters.
So the identifiers Time and TIME will convey different meanings in JavaScript.
NOTE − Care should be taken while writing variable and function names in
JavaScript.

Comments in JavaScript

JavaScript supports both C-style and C++-style comments, Thus −

• Any text between a // and the end of a line is treated as a comment and is ignored
by JavaScript.
• Any text between the characters /* and */ is treated as a comment. This may
span multiple lines.
• JavaScript also recognizes the HTML comment opening sequence <!--.
JavaScript treats this as a single-line comment, just as it does the // comment.
 • The HTML comment closing sequence --> is not recognized by JavaScript so it
should be written as //-->.
Example
The following example shows how to use comments in JavaScript.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
// This is a comment. It is similar to comments in C++

/*
* This is a multi-line comment in JavaScript
* It is very similar to comments in C Programming
*/
//-->
</script>

All the modern browsers come with built-in support for JavaScript. Frequently, you
may need to enable or disable this support manually. This chapter explains the
procedure of enabling and disabling JavaScript support in your browsers: Internet
Explorer, Firefox, chrome, and Opera.

JavaScript in Internet Explorer

Here are simple steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in your Internet Explorer −
• Follow Tools → Internet Options from the menu.
• Select Security tab from the dialog box.
• Click the Custom Level button.
• Scroll down till you find Scripting option.
• Select Enable radio button under Active scripting.
• Finally click OK and come out
To disable JavaScript support in your Internet Explorer, you need to
select Disable radio button under Active scripting.

JavaScript in Firefox

Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Firefox −

• Open a new tab → type about: config in the address bar.
• Then you will find the warning dialog. Select I’ll be careful, I promise!
 • Then you will find the list of configure options in the browser.
• In the search bar, type [Link].
• There you will find the option to enable or disable javascript by right-clicking
on the value of that option → select toggle.
If [Link] is true; it converts to false upon clicking toogle. If javascript is
disabled; it gets enabled upon clicking toggle.

JavaScript in Chrome

Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Chrome −

• Click the Chrome menu at the top right hand corner of your browser.
• Select Settings.
• Click Show advanced settings at the end of the page.
• Under the Privacy section, click the Content settings button.
• In the "Javascript" section, select "Do not allow any site to run JavaScript" or
"Allow all sites to run JavaScript (recommended)".

JavaScript in Opera

Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Opera −

• Follow Tools → Preferences from the menu.
• Select Advanced option from the dialog box.
• Select Content from the listed items.
• Select Enable JavaScript checkbox.
• Finally click OK and come out.
To disable JavaScript support in your Opera, you should not select the Enable
JavaScript checkbox.

Warning for Non-JavaScript Browsers

If you have to do something important using JavaScript, then you can display a
warning message to the user using <noscript> tags.
You can add a noscript block immediately after the script block as follows −
<html>
<body>
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
 <!--
[Link]("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>

<noscript>
Sorry...JavaScript is needed to go ahead.
</noscript>
</body>
</html>
Now, if the user's browser does not support JavaScript or JavaScript is not enabled,
then the message from </noscript> will be displayed on the screen.
There is a flexibility given to include JavaScript code anywhere in an HTML
document. However the most preferred ways to include JavaScript in an HTML file
are as follows −
• Script in <head>...</head> section.
• Script in <body>...</body> section.
• Script in <body>...</body> and <head>...</head> sections.
• Script in an external file and then include in <head>...</head> section.
In the following section, we will see how we can place JavaScript in an HTML file in
different ways.

JavaScript in <head>...</head> section

If you want to have a script run on some event, such as when a user clicks somewhere,
then you will place that script in the head as follows −
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say Hello" />
 </body>
</html>
This code will produce the following results −

JavaScript in <body>...</body> section

If you need a script to run as the page loads so that the script generates content in the
page, then the script goes in the <body> portion of the document. In this case, you
would not have any function defined using JavaScript. Take a look at the following
code.
<html>
<head>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<p>This is web page body </p>

</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following results −

JavaScript in <body> and <head> Sections

You can put your JavaScript code in <head> and <body> section altogether as follows
−
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say Hello" />

</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following result −

JavaScript in External File

As you begin to work more extensively with JavaScript, you will be likely to find that
there are cases where you are reusing identical JavaScript code on multiple pages of
a site.
You are not restricted to be maintaining identical code in multiple HTML files.
The script tag provides a mechanism to allow you to store JavaScript in an external
file and then include it into your HTML files.
Here is an example to show how you can include an external JavaScript file in your
HTML code using script tag and its src attribute.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript" src = "[Link]" ></script>
</head>

<body>
.......
</body>
</html>
To use JavaScript from an external file source, you need to write all your JavaScript
source code in a simple text file with the extension ".js" and then include that file as
shown above.
For example, you can keep the following content in [Link] file and then you can
use sayHello function in your HTML file after including the [Link] file.
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
 JavaScript Datatypes

One of the most fundamental characteristics of a programming language is the set of

data types it supports. These are the type of values that can be represented and
manipulated in a programming language.
JavaScript allows you to work with three primitive data types −
• Numbers, eg. 123, 120.50 etc.
• Strings of text e.g. "This text string" etc.
• Boolean e.g. true or false.
JavaScript also defines two trivial data types, null and undefined, each of which
defines only a single value. In addition to these primitive data types, JavaScript
supports a composite data type known as object. We will cover objects in detail in a
separate chapter.
Note − JavaScript does not make a distinction between integer values and floating-
point values. All numbers in JavaScript are represented as floating-point values.
JavaScript represents numbers using the 64-bit floating-point format defined by the
IEEE 754 standard.

JavaScript Variables

Like many other programming languages, JavaScript has variables. Variables can be
thought of as named containers. You can place data into these containers and then
refer to the data simply by naming the container.
Before you use a variable in a JavaScript program, you must declare it. Variables are
declared with the var keyword as follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money;
var name;
//-->
</script>
You can also declare multiple variables with the same var keyword as follows −
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money, name;
//-->
</script>
Storing a value in a variable is called variable initialization. You can do variable
initialization at the time of variable creation or at a later point in time when you need
that variable.
For instance, you might create a variable named money and assign the value 2000.50
to it later. For another variable, you can assign a value at the time of initialization as
follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var name = "Ali";
var money;
money = 2000.50;
//-->
</script>
Note − Use the var keyword only for declaration or initialization, once for the life of
any variable name in a document. You should not re-declare same variable twice.
JavaScript is untyped language. This means that a JavaScript variable can hold a
value of any data type. Unlike many other languages, you don't have to tell JavaScript
during variable declaration what type of value the variable will hold. The value type
of a variable can change during the execution of a program and JavaScript takes care
of it automatically.

JavaScript Variable Scope

The scope of a variable is the region of your program in which it is defined. JavaScript
variables have only two scopes.
• Global Variables − A global variable has global scope which means it can be
defined anywhere in your JavaScript code.
• Local Variables − A local variable will be visible only within a function where
it is defined. Function parameters are always local to that function.
Within the body of a function, a local variable takes precedence over a global variable
with the same name. If you declare a local variable or function parameter with the
same name as a global variable, you effectively hide the global variable. Take a look
into the following example.
<html>
<body onload = checkscope();>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var myVar = "global"; // Declare a global variable
function checkscope( ) {
 var myVar = "local"; // Declare a local variable
[Link](myVar);
}
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This produces the following result −
local

JavaScript Variable Names

While naming your variables in JavaScript, keep the following rules in mind.
• You should not use any of the JavaScript reserved keywords as a variable name.
These keywords are mentioned in the next section. For
example, break or boolean variable names are not valid.
• JavaScript variable names should not start with a numeral (0-9). They must
begin with a letter or an underscore character. For example, 123test is an
invalid variable name but _123test is a valid one.
• JavaScript variable names are case-sensitive. For
example, Name and name are two different variables.

JavaScript Reserved Words

A list of all the reserved words in JavaScript are given in the following table. They
cannot be used as JavaScript variables, functions, methods, loop labels, or any object
names.

abstract else instanceof switch

boolean enum int synchronized

break export interface this

byte extends long throw

case false native throws

 catch final new transient

char finally null true

class float package try

const for private typeof

continue function protected var

debugger goto public void

default if return volatile

delete implements short while

do import static with

double in super

Operator

What is an Operator?

Let us take a simple expression 4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here 4 and 5 are

called operands and ‘+’ is called the operator. JavaScript supports the following
types of operators.

• Arithmetic Operators
• Comparison Operators
• Logical (or Relational) Operators
• Assignment Operators
 • Conditional (or ternary) Operators
Lets have a look on all operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators

JavaScript supports the following arithmetic operators −

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 + (Addition)
Adds two operands
Ex: A + B will give 30

2 - (Subtraction)
Subtracts the second operand from the first
Ex: A - B will give -10

3 * (Multiplication)
Multiply both operands
Ex: A * B will give 200

4 / (Division)
Divide the numerator by the denominator
Ex: B / A will give 2

5 % (Modulus)
Outputs the remainder of an integer division
Ex: B % A will give 0

6 ++ (Increment)
Increases an integer value by one
 Ex: A++ will give 11

7 -- (Decrement)
Decreases an integer value by one
Ex: A-- will give 9

Note − Addition operator (+) works for Numeric as well as Strings. e.g. "a" + 10 will
give "a10".
Example
The following code shows how to use arithmetic operators in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
var c = "Test";
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("a + b = ");
result = a + b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a - b = ");
result = a - b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a / b = ");
result = a / b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a % b = ");
result = a % b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
 [Link]("a + b + c = ");
result = a + b + c;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

a = ++a;
[Link]("++a = ");
result = ++a;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

b = --b;
[Link]("--b = ");
result = --b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>

Set the variables to different values and then try...

</body>
</html>
Output
a + b = 43
a - b = 23
a / b = 3.3
a%b=3
a + b + c = 43Test
++a = 35
--b = 8
Set the variables to different values and then try...

Comparison Operators

JavaScript supports the following comparison operators −

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 = = (Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes, then the condition
becomes true.
Ex: (A == B) is not true.

2 != (Not Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if the values are not
equal, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A != B) is true.

3 > (Greater than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than the value of the right
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A > B) is not true.

4 < (Less than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is less than the value of the right
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A < B) is true.

5 >= (Greater than or Equal to)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than or equal to the value of
the right operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A >= B) is not true.

6 <= (Less than or Equal to)

Checks if the value of the left operand is less than or equal to the value of the
right operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A <= B) is true.

Example
The following code shows how to use comparison operators in JavaScript.
<html>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a == b) => ");

result = (a == b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a < b) => ");

result = (a < b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a > b) => ");

result = (a > b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a != b) => ");

result = (a != b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a >= b) => ");

result = (a >= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a <= b) => ");

result = (a <= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...
</body>
</html>
Output
(a == b) => false
(a < b) => true
(a > b) => false
(a != b) => true
(a >= b) => false
a <= b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...

Logical Operators

JavaScript supports the following logical operators −

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 && (Logical AND)

If both the operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A && B) is true.

2 || (Logical OR)
If any of the two operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A || B) is true.

3 ! (Logical NOT)
Reverses the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true, then the Logical
NOT operator will make it false.
Ex: ! (A && B) is false.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement Logical Operators in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = true;
var b = false;
 var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a && b) => ");

result = (a && b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a || b) => ");

result = (a || b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("!(a && b) => ");

result = (!(a && b));
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
(a && b) => false
(a || b) => true
!(a && b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...

Bitwise Operators

JavaScript supports the following bitwise operators −

Assume variable A holds 2 and variable B holds 3, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 & (Bitwise AND)

It performs a Boolean AND operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A & B) is 2.

2 | (BitWise OR)
 It performs a Boolean OR operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A | B) is 3.

3 ^ (Bitwise XOR)
It performs a Boolean exclusive OR operation on each bit of its integer
arguments. Exclusive OR means that either operand one is true or operand
two is true, but not both.
Ex: (A ^ B) is 1.

4 ~ (Bitwise Not)
It is a unary operator and operates by reversing all the bits in the operand.
Ex: (~B) is -4.

5 << (Left Shift)

It moves all the bits in its first operand to the left by the number of places
specified in the second operand. New bits are filled with zeros. Shifting a
value left by one position is equivalent to multiplying it by 2, shifting two
positions is equivalent to multiplying by 4, and so on.
Ex: (A << 1) is 4.

6 >> (Right Shift)

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operand’s value is moved right by the
number of bits specified by the right operand.
Ex: (A >> 1) is 1.

7 >>> (Right shift with Zero)

This operator is just like the >> operator, except that the bits shifted in on the
left are always zero.
Ex: (A >>> 1) is 1.

Example
Try the following code to implement Bitwise operator in JavaScript.
<html>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 2; // Bit presentation 10
var b = 3; // Bit presentation 11
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a & b) => ");

result = (a & b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a | b) => ");

result = (a | b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a ^ b) => ");

result = (a ^ b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(~b) => ");

result = (~b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a << b) => ");

result = (a << b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a >> b) => ");

result = (a >> b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
(a & b) => 2
(a | b) => 3
(a ^ b) => 1
(~b) => -4
(a << b) => 16
(a >> b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...

Assignment Operators

JavaScript supports the following assignment operators −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 = (Simple Assignment )
Assigns values from the right side operand to the left side operand
Ex: C = A + B will assign the value of A + B into C

2 += (Add and Assignment)

It adds the right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the left
operand.
Ex: C += A is equivalent to C = C + A

3 −= (Subtract and Assignment)

It subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to
the left operand.
Ex: C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A

4 *= (Multiply and Assignment)

It multiplies the right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to
the left operand.
Ex: C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A

5 /= (Divide and Assignment)

It divides the left operand with the right operand and assigns the result to the
left operand.
 Ex: C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A

6 %= (Modules and Assignment)

It takes modulus using two operands and assigns the result to the left operand.
Ex: C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A

Note − Same logic applies to Bitwise operators so they will become like <<=, >>=,
>>=, &=, |= and ^=.
Example
Try the following code to implement assignment operator in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("Value of a => (a = b) => ");

result = (a = b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a += b) => ");

result = (a += b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a -= b) => ");

result = (a -= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a *= b) => ");

result = (a *= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a /= b) => ");

 result = (a /= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a %= b) => ");

result = (a %= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Value of a => (a = b) => 10
Value of a => (a += b) => 20
Value of a => (a -= b) => 10
Value of a => (a *= b) => 100
Value of a => (a /= b) => 10
Value of a => (a %= b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...

Miscellaneous Operator

We will discuss two operators here that are quite useful in JavaScript: the conditional
operator (? :) and the typeof operator.
Conditional Operator (? :)
The conditional operator first evaluates an expression for a true or false value and then
executes one of the two given statements depending upon the result of the evaluation.

[Link]. Operator and Description

1 ? : (Conditional )
If Condition is true? Then value X : Otherwise value Y

Example
Try the following code to understand how the Conditional Operator works in
JavaScript.
<html>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link] ("((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a > b) ? 100 : 200;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link] ("((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a < b) ? 100 : 200;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => 200
((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => 100
Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...

typeof Operator

The typeof operator is a unary operator that is placed before its single operand, which
can be of any type. Its value is a string indicating the data type of the operand.
The typeof operator evaluates to "number", "string", or "boolean" if its operand is a
number, string, or boolean value and returns true or false based on the evaluation.
Here is a list of the return values for the typeof Operator.

Type String Returned by typeof

Number "number"

String "string"
 Boolean "boolean"

Object "object"

Function "function"

Undefined "undefined"

Null "object"

Example
The following code shows how to implement typeof operator.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = "String";
var linebreak = "<br />";

result = (typeof b == "string" ? "B is String" : "B is Numeric");

[Link]("Result => ");
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

result = (typeof a == "string" ? "A is String" : "A is Numeric");

[Link]("Result => ");
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Result => B is String
Result => A is Numeric
 Conditional Statements
While writing a program, there may be a situation when you need to adopt one out of
a given set of paths. In such cases, you need to use conditional statements that allow
your program to make correct decisions and perform right actions.
JavaScript supports conditional statements which are used to perform different actions
based on different conditions. Here we will explain the if..else statement.

Flow Chart of if-else

The following flow chart shows how the if-else statement works.

JavaScript supports the following forms of if..else statement −

• if statement
• if...else statement
• if...else if... statement.

if statement

The if statement is the fundamental control statement that allows JavaScript to make
decisions and execute statements conditionally.
Syntax
The syntax for a basic if statement is as follows −
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}
Here a JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the given
statement(s) are executed. If the expression is false, then no statement would be not
executed. Most of the times, you will use comparison operators while making
decisions.
Example
Try the following example to understand how the if statement works.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 20;

if( age > 18 ) {

[Link]("<b>Qualifies for driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Qualifies for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else statement

The 'if...else' statement is the next form of control statement that allows JavaScript to
execute statements in a more controlled way.
Syntax
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is false
}
Here JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the given
statement(s) in the ‘if’ block, are executed. If the expression is false, then the given
statement(s) in the else block are executed.
Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else statement in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 15;

if( age > 18 ) {

[Link]("<b>Qualifies for driving</b>");
} else {
[Link]("<b>Does not qualify for driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Does not qualify for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else if... statement

The if...else if... statement is an advanced form of if…else that allows JavaScript to
make a correct decision out of several conditions.
Syntax
The syntax of an if-else-if statement is as follows −
if (expression 1) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 1 is true
} else if (expression 2) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 2 is true
} else if (expression 3) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 3 is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if no expression is true
}
There is nothing special about this code. It is just a series of if statements, where
each if is a part of the else clause of the previous statement. Statement(s) are executed
based on the true condition, if none of the conditions is true, then the else block is
executed.
Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else-if statement in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var book = "maths";
if( book == "history" ) {
[Link]("<b>History Book</b>");
} else if( book == "maths" ) {
[Link]("<b>Maths Book</b>");
} else if( book == "economics" ) {
[Link]("<b>Economics Book</b>");
} else {
[Link]("<b>Unknown Book</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
<html>
Output
Maths Book
Set the variable to different value and then try...
You can use multiple if...else…if statements, as in the previous chapter, to perform a
multiway branch. However, this is not always the best solution, especially when all of
the branches depend on the value of a single variable.
Starting with JavaScript 1.2, you can use a switch statement which handles exactly
this situation, and it does so more efficiently than repeated if...else if statements.

Flow Chart

The following flow chart explains a switch-case statement works.

Syntax
The objective of a switch statement is to give an expression to evaluate and several
different statements to execute based on the value of the expression. The interpreter
checks each case against the value of the expression until a match is found. If nothing
matches, a default condition will be used.
switch (expression) {
case condition 1: statement(s)
break;

case condition 2: statement(s)

break;
...

case condition n: statement(s)

break;

default: statement(s)
}
The break statements indicate the end of a particular case. If they were omitted, the
interpreter would continue executing each statement in each of the following cases.
We will explain break statement in Loop Control chapter.
Example
Try the following example to implement switch-case statement.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
[Link]("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': [Link]("Good job<br />");
break;

case 'B': [Link]("Pretty good<br />");

break;

case 'C': [Link]("Passed<br />");

break;

case 'D': [Link]("Not so good<br />");

break;

case 'F': [Link]("Failed<br />");

break;

default: [Link]("Unknown grade<br />")

}
[Link]("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Entering switch block
Good job
Exiting switch block
Set the variable to different value and then try...
Break statements play a major role in switch-case statements. Try the following code
that uses switch-case statement without any break statement.
<html>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
[Link]("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': [Link]("Good job<br />");
case 'B': [Link]("Pretty good<br />");
case 'C': [Link]("Passed<br />");
case 'D': [Link]("Not so good<br />");
case 'F': [Link]("Failed<br />");
default: [Link]("Unknown grade<br />")
}
[Link]("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Entering switch block
Good job
Pretty good
Passed
Not so good
Failed
Unknown grade
Exiting switch block
Set the variable to different value and then try...

Looping

While writing a program, you may encounter a situation where you need to perform
an action over and over again. In such situations, you would need to write loop
statements to reduce the number of lines.
JavaScript supports all the necessary loops to ease down the pressure of programming.

The while Loop

The most basic loop in JavaScript is the while loop which would be discussed in this
chapter. The purpose of a while loop is to execute a statement or code block
repeatedly as long as an expression is true. Once the expression becomes false, the
loop terminates.
Flow Chart
The flow chart of while loop looks as follows −

Syntax
The syntax of while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
while (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}
Example
Try the following example to implement while loop.
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var count = 0;
[Link]("Starting Loop ");

while (count < 10) {

 [Link]("Current Count : " + count + "<br />");
count++;
}

[Link]("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>

<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>

</body>
</html>
Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Current Count : 5
Current Count : 6
Current Count : 7
Current Count : 8
Current Count : 9
Loop stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

The do...while Loop

The do...while loop is similar to the while loop except that the condition check
happens at the end of the loop. This means that the loop will always be executed at
least once, even if the condition is false.
Flow Chart
The flow chart of a do-while loop would be as follows −
Syntax
The syntax for do-while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
do {
Statement(s) to be executed;
} while (expression);
Note − Don’t miss the semicolon used at the end of the do...while loop.
Example
Try the following example to learn how to implement a do-while loop in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count = 0;

[Link]("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

do {
[Link]("Current Count : " + count + "<br />");
count++;
}

while (count < 5);

[Link] ("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
 <p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Loop Stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...
The 'for' loop is the most compact form of looping. It includes the following three
important parts −
• The loop initialization where we initialize our counter to a starting value. The
initialization statement is executed before the loop begins.
• The test statement which will test if a given condition is true or not. If the
condition is true, then the code given inside the loop will be executed, otherwise
the control will come out of the loop.
• The iteration statement where you can increase or decrease your counter.
You can put all the three parts in a single line separated by semicolons.

Flow Chart

The flow chart of a for loop in JavaScript would be as follows −

Syntax
The syntax of for loop is JavaScript is as follows −
for (initialization; test condition; iteration statement) {
Statement(s) to be executed if test condition is true
}
Example
Try the following example to learn how a for loop works in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count;
[Link]("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

for(count = 0; count < 10; count++) {

[Link]("Current Count : " + count );
[Link]("<br />");
}
[Link]("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Current Count : 5
Current Count : 6
Current Count : 7
Current Count : 8
Current Count : 9
Loop stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...
The for...in loop is used to loop through an object's properties. As we have not
discussed Objects yet, you may not feel comfortable with this loop. But once you
understand how objects behave in JavaScript, you will find this loop very useful.

Syntax

The syntax of ‘for..in’ loop is −

for (variablename in object) {
statement or block to execute
}
In each iteration, one property from object is assigned to variablename and this loop
continues till all the properties of the object are exhausted.
Example
Try the following example to implement ‘for-in’ loop. It prints the web
browser’s Navigator object.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var aProperty;
[Link]("Navigator Object Properties<br /> ");
for (aProperty in navigator) {
[Link](aProperty);
[Link]("<br />");
}
[Link] ("Exiting from the loop!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different object and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Navigator Object Properties
serviceWorker
webkitPersistentStorage
webkitTemporaryStorage
geolocation
doNotTrack
onLine
languages
language
userAgent
product
platform
appVersion
appName
appCodeName
hardwareConcurrency
maxTouchPoints
vendorSub
vendor
productSub
cookieEnabled
mimeTypes
plugins
javaEnabled
getStorageUpdates
getGamepads
webkitGetUserMedia
vibrate
getBattery
sendBeacon
registerProtocolHandler
unregisterProtocolHandler
Exiting from the loop!
Set the variable to different object and then try...
JavaScript provides full control to handle loops and switch statements. There may be
a situation when you need to come out of a loop without reaching its bottom. There
may also be a situation when you want to skip a part of your code block and start the
next iteration of the loop.
To handle all such situations, JavaScript provides break and continue statements.
These statements are used to immediately come out of any loop or to start the next
iteration of any loop respectively.

The break Statement

The break statement, which was briefly introduced with the switch statement, is used
to exit a loop early, breaking out of the enclosing curly braces.
Flow Chart
The flow chart of a break statement would look as follows −
Example
The following example illustrates the use of a break statement with a while loop.
Notice how the loop breaks out early once x reaches 5 and reaches to [Link]
(..) statement just below to the closing curly brace −
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var x = 1;
[Link]("Entering the loop<br /> ");

while (x < 20) {

if (x == 5) {
break; // breaks out of loop completely
}
x = x + 1;
[Link]( x + "<br />");
}
[Link]("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>

<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>

</body>
</html>
Output
Entering the loop
2
3
4
5
Exiting the loop!
Set the variable to different value and then try...
We already have seen the usage of break statement inside a switch statement.

The continue Statement

The continue statement tells the interpreter to immediately start the next iteration of
the loop and skip the remaining code block. When a continue statement is
encountered, the program flow moves to the loop check expression immediately and
if the condition remains true, then it starts the next iteration, otherwise the control
comes out of the loop.
Example
This example illustrates the use of a continue statement with a while loop. Notice
how the continue statement is used to skip printing when the index held in
variable x reaches 5 −
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var x = 1;
[Link]("Entering the loop<br /> ");

while (x < 10) {

x = x + 1;

if (x == 5) {
continue; // skip rest of the loop body
}
[Link]( x + "<br />");
}
[Link]("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Entering the loop
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
Exiting the loop!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

Using Labels to Control the Flow

Starting from JavaScript 1.2, a label can be used with break and continue to control
the flow more precisely. A label is simply an identifier followed by a colon (:) that is
applied to a statement or a block of code. We will see two different examples to
understand how to use labels with break and continue.
Note − Line breaks are not allowed between the ‘continue’ or ‘break’ statement and
its label name. Also, there should not be any other statement in between a label name
and associated loop.
Try the following two examples for a better understanding of Labels.
Example 1
The following example shows how to implement Label with a break statement.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Entering the loop!<br /> ");
outerloop: // This is the label name
for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
[Link]("Outerloop: " + i + "<br />");
innerloop:
for (var j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
if (j > 3 ) break ; // Quit the innermost loop
if (i == 2) break innerloop; // Do the same thing
if (i == 4) break outerloop; // Quit the outer loop
[Link]("Innerloop: " + j + " <br />");
}
}
[Link]("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
 </script>
</body>
</html>
Output
Entering the loop!
Outerloop: 0
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 1
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 2
Outerloop: 3
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 4
Exiting the loop!
Example 2
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
[Link]("Entering the loop!<br /> ");
outerloop: // This is the label name

for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

[Link]("Outerloop: " + i + "<br />");
for (var j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
if (j == 3) {
continue outerloop;
}
[Link]("Innerloop: " + j + "<br />");
}
}
 [Link]("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>

</body>
</html>
Output
Entering the loop!
Outerloop: 0
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Outerloop: 1
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Outerloop: 2
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Exiting the loop!
 Function

A function is a group of reusable code which can be called anywhere in your program.
This eliminates the need of writing the same code again and again. It helps
programmers in writing modular codes. Functions allow a programmer to divide a big
program into a number of small and manageable functions.
Like any other advanced programming language, JavaScript also supports all the
features necessary to write modular code using functions. You must have seen
functions like alert() and write() in the earlier chapters. We were using these
functions again and again, but they had been written in core JavaScript only once.
JavaScript allows us to write our own functions as well. This section explains how to
write your own functions in JavaScript.

Function Definition

Before we use a function, we need to define it. The most common way to define a
function in JavaScript is by using the function keyword, followed by a unique
function name, a list of parameters (that might be empty), and a statement block
surrounded by curly braces.
Syntax
The basic syntax is shown here.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function functionname(parameter-list) {
statements
}
//-->
</script>
Example
Try the following example. It defines a function called sayHello that takes no
parameters −
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello there");
}
//-->
</script>
Calling a Function

To invoke a function somewhere later in the script, you would simply need to write
the name of that function as shown in the following code.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello() {
[Link] ("Hello there!");
}
</script>

</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say Hello">
</form>
<p>Use different text in write method and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Function Parameters

Till now, we have seen functions without parameters. But there is a facility to pass
different parameters while calling a function. These passed parameters can be
captured inside the function and any manipulation can be done over those parameters.
A function can take multiple parameters separated by comma.
Example
Try the following example. We have modified our sayHello function here. Now it
takes two parameters.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello(name, age) {
[Link] (name + " is " + age + " years old.");
}
</script>
</head>
 <body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello('Zara', 7)" value = "Say Hello">
</form>
<p>Use different parameters inside the function and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

The return Statement

A JavaScript function can have an optional return statement. This is required if you
want to return a value from a function. This statement should be the last statement in
a function.
For example, you can pass two numbers in a function and then you can expect the
function to return their multiplication in your calling program.
Example
Try the following example. It defines a function that takes two parameters and
concatenates them before returning the resultant in the calling program.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function concatenate(first, last) {
var full;
full = first + last;
return full;
}
function secondFunction() {
var result;
result = concatenate('Zara', 'Ali');
[Link] (result );
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "secondFunction()" value = "Call Function">
</form>
<p>Use different parameters inside the function and then try...</p>
 </body>
</html>

Event

What is an Event ?

JavaScript's interaction with HTML is handled through events that occur when the
user or the browser manipulates a page.
When the page loads, it is called an event. When the user clicks a button, that click
too is an event. Other examples include events like pressing any key, closing a
window, resizing a window, etc.
Developers can use these events to execute JavaScript coded responses, which cause
buttons to close windows, messages to be displayed to users, data to be validated, and
virtually any other type of response imaginable.
Events are a part of the Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 and every HTML
element contains a set of events which can trigger JavaScript Code.
Please go through this small tutorial for a better understanding HTML Event
Reference. Here we will see a few examples to understand a relation between Event
and JavaScript −

onclick Event Type

This is the most frequently used event type which occurs when a user clicks the left
button of his mouse. You can put your validation, warning etc., against this event type.
Example
Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button and see result</p>
 <form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say Hello" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
Output

onsubmit Event Type

onsubmit is an event that occurs when you try to submit a form. You can put your
form validation against this event type.
Example
The following example shows how to use onsubmit. Here we are calling
a validate() function before submitting a form data to the webserver.
If validate() function returns true, the form will be submitted, otherwise it will not
submit the data.
Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function validation() {
all validation goes here
.........
return either true or false
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form method = "POST" action = "[Link]" onsubmit = "return validate()">
.......
<input type = "submit" value = "Submit" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

onmouseover and onmouseout

These two event types will help you create nice effects with images or even with text
as well. The onmouseover event triggers when you bring your mouse over any
element and the onmouseout triggers when you move your mouse out from that
element. Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function over() {
[Link] ("Mouse Over");
}
function out() {
[Link] ("Mouse Out");
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Bring your mouse inside the division to see the result:</p>
<div onmouseover = "over()" onmouseout = "out()">
<h2> This is inside the division </h2>
</div>
</body>
</html>

HTML 5 Standard Events

The standard HTML 5 events are listed here for your reference. Here script indicates
a Javascript function to be executed against that event.

Attribute Value Description

Offline script Triggers when the document goes offline

Onabort script Triggers on an abort event

onafterprint script Triggers after the document is printed

onbeforeonload script Triggers before the document loads

onbeforeprint script Triggers before the document is printed

onblur script Triggers when the window loses focus

Triggers when media can start play, but might has to

oncanplay script
stop for buffering

Triggers when media can be played to the end, without

oncanplaythrough script
stopping for buffering

onchange script Triggers when an element changes

onclick script Triggers on a mouse click

oncontextmenu script Triggers when a context menu is triggered

ondblclick script Triggers on a mouse double-click

ondrag script Triggers when an element is dragged

ondragend script Triggers at the end of a drag operation

Triggers when an element has been dragged to a valid

ondragenter script
drop target

Triggers when an element is being dragged over a valid

ondragleave script
drop target
ondragover script Triggers at the start of a drag operation

ondragstart script Triggers at the start of a drag operation

ondrop script Triggers when dragged element is being dropped

ondurationchange script Triggers when the length of the media is changed

Triggers when a media resource element suddenly

onemptied script
becomes empty.

onended script Triggers when media has reach the end

onerror script Triggers when an error occur

onfocus script Triggers when the window gets focus

onformchange script Triggers when a form changes

onforminput script Triggers when a form gets user input

onhaschange script Triggers when the document has change

oninput script Triggers when an element gets user input

oninvalid script Triggers when an element is invalid

onkeydown script Triggers when a key is pressed

onkeypress script Triggers when a key is pressed and released

onkeyup script Triggers when a key is released

onload script Triggers when the document loads

onloadeddata script Triggers when media data is loaded

Triggers when the duration and other media data of a

onloadedmetadata script
media element is loaded

onloadstart script Triggers when the browser starts to load the media data

onmessage script Triggers when the message is triggered

onmousedown script Triggers when a mouse button is pressed

onmousemove script Triggers when the mouse pointer moves

Triggers when the mouse pointer moves out of an

onmouseout script
element

Triggers when the mouse pointer moves over an

onmouseover script
element

onmouseup script Triggers when a mouse button is released

onmousewheel script Triggers when the mouse wheel is being rotated

onoffline script Triggers when the document goes offline

onoine script Triggers when the document comes online

ononline script Triggers when the document comes online

onpagehide script Triggers when the window is hidden

onpageshow script Triggers when the window becomes visible

onpause script Triggers when media data is paused

onplay script Triggers when media data is going to start playing

onplaying script Triggers when media data has start playing

onpopstate script Triggers when the window's history changes

onprogress script Triggers when the browser is fetching the media data

Triggers when the media data's playing rate has

onratechange script
changed

onreadystatechange script Triggers when the ready-state changes

onredo script Triggers when the document performs a redo

onresize script Triggers when the window is resized

onscroll script Triggers when an element's scrollbar is being scrolled

Triggers when a media element's seeking attribute is no

onseeked script
longer true, and the seeking has ended
 Triggers when a media element's seeking attribute is
onseeking script
true, and the seeking has begun

onselect script Triggers when an element is selected

onstalled script Triggers when there is an error in fetching media data

onstorage script Triggers when a document loads

onsubmit script Triggers when a form is submitted

Triggers when the browser has been fetching media

onsuspend script data, but stopped before the entire media file was
fetched

ontimeupdate script Triggers when media changes its playing position

onundo script Triggers when a document performs an undo

onunload script Triggers when the user leaves the document

Triggers when media changes the volume, also when

onvolumechange script
volume is set to "mute"

Triggers when media has stopped playing, but is

onwaiting script
expected to resume

Cookies

What are Cookies ?

Web Browsers and Servers use HTTP protocol to communicate and HTTP is a
stateless protocol. But for a commercial website, it is required to maintain session
information among different pages. For example, one user registration ends after
completing many pages. But how to maintain users' session information across all the
web pages.
In many situations, using cookies is the most efficient method of remembering and
tracking preferences, purchases, commissions, and other information required for
better visitor experience or site statistics.

How It Works ?

Your server sends some data to the visitor's browser in the form of a cookie. The
browser may accept the cookie. If it does, it is stored as a plain text record on the
visitor's hard drive. Now, when the visitor arrives at another page on your site, the
browser sends the same cookie to the server for retrieval. Once retrieved, your server
knows/remembers what was stored earlier.
Cookies are a plain text data record of 5 variable-length fields −
• Expires − The date the cookie will expire. If this is blank, the cookie will expire
when the visitor quits the browser.
• Domain − The domain name of your site.
• Path − The path to the directory or web page that set the cookie. This may be
blank if you want to retrieve the cookie from any directory or page.
• Secure − If this field contains the word "secure", then the cookie may only be
retrieved with a secure server. If this field is blank, no such restriction exists.
• Name=Value − Cookies are set and retrieved in the form of key-value pairs
Cookies were originally designed for CGI programming. The data contained in a
cookie is automatically transmitted between the web browser and the web server, so
CGI scripts on the server can read and write cookie values that are stored on the client.
JavaScript can also manipulate cookies using the cookie property of
the Document object. JavaScript can read, create, modify, and delete the cookies that
apply to the current web page.

Storing Cookies

The simplest way to create a cookie is to assign a string value to the [Link]
object, which looks like this.
[Link] = "key1 = value1;key2 = value2;expires = date";
Here the expires attribute is optional. If you provide this attribute with a valid date or
time, then the cookie will expire on a given date or time and thereafter, the cookies'
value will not be accessible.
Note − Cookie values may not include semicolons, commas, or whitespace. For this
reason, you may want to use the JavaScript escape() function to encode the value
before storing it in the cookie. If you do this, you will also have to use the
corresponding unescape() function when you read the cookie value.
Example
Try the following. It sets a customer name in an input cookie.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function WriteCookie() {
if( [Link] == "" ) {
alert("Enter some value!");
return;
}
cookievalue = escape([Link]) + ";";
[Link] = "name=" + cookievalue;
[Link] ("Setting Cookies : " + "name=" + cookievalue );
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form name = "myform" action = "">
Enter name: <input type = "text" name = "customer"/>
<input type = "button" value = "Set Cookie" onclick = "WriteCookie();"/>
</form>
</body>
</html>
Now your machine has a cookie called name. You can set multiple cookies using
multiple key = value pairs separated by comma.

Reading Cookies

Reading a cookie is just as simple as writing one, because the value of the
[Link] object is the cookie. So you can use this string whenever you want
to access the cookie. The [Link] string will keep a list of name=value pairs
separated by semicolons, where name is the name of a cookie and value is its string
value.
You can use strings' split() function to break a string into key and values as follows −
Example
Try the following example to get all the cookies.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function ReadCookie() {
var allcookies = [Link];
[Link] ("All Cookies : " + allcookies );

// Get all the cookies pairs in an array

cookiearray = [Link](';');

// Now take key value pair out of this array

for(var i=0; i<[Link]; i++) {
name = cookiearray[i].split('=')[0];
value = cookiearray[i].split('=')[1];
[Link] ("Key is : " + name + " and Value is : " + value);
}
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form name = "myform" action = "">
<p> click the following button and see the result:</p>
<input type = "button" value = "Get Cookie" onclick = "ReadCookie()"/>
</form>
</body>
</html>
Note − Here length is a method of Array class which returns the length of an array.
We will discuss Arrays in a separate chapter. By that time, please try to digest it.
Note − There may be some other cookies already set on your machine. The above
code will display all the cookies set on your machine.

Setting Cookies Expiry Date

You can extend the life of a cookie beyond the current browser session by setting an
expiration date and saving the expiry date within the cookie. This can be done by
setting the ‘expires’ attribute to a date and time.
Example
Try the following example. It illustrates how to extend the expiry date of a cookie by
1 Month.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function WriteCookie() {
var now = new Date();
[Link]( [Link]() + 1 );
cookievalue = escape([Link]) + ";"

[Link] = "name=" + cookievalue;

[Link] = "expires=" + [Link]() + ";"
[Link] ("Setting Cookies : " + "name=" + cookievalue );
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form name = "myform" action = "">
Enter name: <input type = "text" name = "customer"/>
<input type = "button" value = "Set Cookie" onclick = "WriteCookie()"/>
</form>
</body>
</html>

Deleting a Cookie

Sometimes you will want to delete a cookie so that subsequent attempts to read the
cookie return nothing. To do this, you just need to set the expiry date to a time in the
past.
Example
Try the following example. It illustrates how to delete a cookie by setting its expiry
date to one month behind the current date.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
 function WriteCookie() {
var now = new Date();
[Link]( [Link]() - 1 );
cookievalue = escape([Link]) + ";"

[Link] = "name=" + cookievalue;

[Link] = "expires=" + [Link]() + ";"
[Link]("Setting Cookies : " + "name=" + cookievalue );
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form name = "myform" action = "">
Enter name: <input type = "text" name = "customer"/>
<input type = "button" value = "Set Cookie" onclick = "WriteCookie()"/>
</form>
</body>
</html>

Page Redirection

What is Page Redirection ?

You might have encountered a situation where you clicked a URL to reach a page X
but internally you were directed to another page Y. It happens due to page
redirection. This concept is different from JavaScript Page Refresh.
There could be various reasons why you would like to redirect a user from the original
page. We are listing down a few of the reasons −
• You did not like the name of your domain and you are moving to a new one. In
such a scenario, you may want to direct all your visitors to the new site. Here
you can maintain your old domain but put a single page with a page redirection
such that all your old domain visitors can come to your new domain.
• You have built-up various pages based on browser versions or their names or
may be based on different countries, then instead of using your server-side page
redirection, you can use client-side page redirection to land your users on the
appropriate page.
• The Search Engines may have already indexed your pages. But while moving
to another domain, you would not like to lose your visitors coming through
search engines. So you can use client-side page redirection. But keep in mind
 this should not be done to fool the search engine, it could lead your site to get
banned.

How Page Re-direction Works ?

The implementations of Page-Redirection are as follows.

Example 1
It is quite simple to do a page redirect using JavaScript at client side. To redirect your
site visitors to a new page, you just need to add a line in your head section as follows.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function Redirect() {
[Link] = "[Link]
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button, you will be redirected to home page.</p>

<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Redirect Me" onclick = "Redirect();" />
</form>

</body>
</html>
Example 2
You can show an appropriate message to your site visitors before redirecting them to
a new page. This would need a bit time delay to load a new page. The following
example shows how to implement the same. Here setTimeout() is a built-in
JavaScript function which can be used to execute another function after a given time
interval.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function Redirect() {
 [Link] = "[Link]
}
[Link]("You will be redirected to main page in 10 sec.");
setTimeout('Redirect()', 10000);
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
</body>
</html>
Output
You will be redirected to [Link] main page in 10 seconds!
Example 3
The following example shows how to redirect your site visitors onto a different page
based on their browsers.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var browsername = [Link];
if( browsername == "Netscape" ) {
[Link] = "[Link]
} else if ( browsername =="Microsoft Internet Explorer") {
[Link] = "[Link]
} else {
[Link] = "[Link]
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
</body>
</html>

Dialog Boxes
JavaScript supports three important types of dialog boxes. These dialog boxes can be
used to raise and alert, or to get confirmation on any input or to have a kind of input
from the users. Here we will discuss each dialog box one by one.
Alert Dialog Box

An alert dialog box is mostly used to give a warning message to the users. For
example, if one input field requires to enter some text but the user does not provide
any input, then as a part of validation, you can use an alert box to give a warning
message.
Nonetheless, an alert box can still be used for friendlier messages. Alert box gives
only one button "OK" to select and proceed.
Example
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function Warn() {
alert ("This is a warning message!");
[Link] ("This is a warning message!");
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick = "Warn();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Confirmation Dialog Box

A confirmation dialog box is mostly used to take user's consent on any option. It
displays a dialog box with two buttons: OK and Cancel.
If the user clicks on the OK button, the window method confirm() will return true. If
the user clicks on the Cancel button, then confirm() returns false. You can use a
confirmation dialog box as follows.
Example
<html>
<head>
 <script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function getConfirmation() {
var retVal = confirm("Do you want to continue ?");
if( retVal == true ) {
[Link] ("User wants to continue!");
return true;
} else {
[Link] ("User does not want to continue!");
return false;
}
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick = "getConfirmation();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Prompt Dialog Box

The prompt dialog box is very useful when you want to pop-up a text box to get user
input. Thus, it enables you to interact with the user. The user needs to fill in the field
and then click OK.
This dialog box is displayed using a method called prompt() which takes two
parameters: (i) a label which you want to display in the text box and (ii) a default
string to display in the text box.
This dialog box has two buttons: OK and Cancel. If the user clicks the OK button,
the window method prompt() will return the entered value from the text box. If the
user clicks the Cancel button, the window method prompt() returns null.
Example
The following example shows how to use a prompt dialog box −
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
 function getValue() {
var retVal = prompt("Enter your name : ", "your name here");
[Link]("You have entered : " + retVal);
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick = "getValue();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Use of void keyword

void is an important keyword in JavaScript which can be used as a unary operator that
appears before its single operand, which may be of any type. This operator specifies
an expression to be evaluated without returning a value.

Syntax

The syntax of void can be either of the following two −

<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
void func()
javascript:void func()
or:
void(func())
javascript:void(func())
//-->
</script>
</head>
Example 1
The most common use of this operator is in a client-side javascript: URL, where it
allows you to evaluate an expression for its side-effects without the browser
displaying the value of the evaluated expression.
Here the expression alert ('Warning!!!') is evaluated but it is not loaded back into
the current document −
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following, This won't react at all...</p>
<a href = "javascript:void(alert('Warning!!!'))">Click me!</a>
</body>
</html>
Example 2
Take a look at the following example. The following link does nothing because the
expression "0" has no effect in JavaScript. Here the expression "0" is evaluated, but it
is not loaded back into the current document.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following, This won't react at all...</p>
<a href = "javascript:void(0)">Click me!</a>
</body>
</html>
Example 3
Another use of void is to purposely generate the undefined value as follows.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function getValue() {
var a,b,c;
 a = void ( b = 5, c = 7 );
[Link]('a = ' + a + ' b = ' + b +' c = ' + c );
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following to see the result:</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick = "getValue();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Page Printing

Many times you would like to place a button on your webpage to print the content of
that web page via an actual printer. JavaScript helps you to implement this
functionality using the print function of window object.
The JavaScript print function [Link]() prints the current web page when
executed. You can call this function directly using the onclick event as shown in the
following example.
Example
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Print" onclick = "[Link]()" />
</form>
</body>
<html>
Output
Although it serves the purpose of getting a printout, it is not a recommended way. A
printer friendly page is really just a page with text, no images, graphics, or advertising.
You can make a page printer friendly in the following ways −
• Make a copy of the page and leave out unwanted text and graphics, then link to
that printer friendly page from the original. Check Example.
• If you do not want to keep an extra copy of a page, then you can mark your
printable text using proper comments like <!-- PRINT STARTS HERE -->.....
<!-- PRINT ENDS HERE --> and then you can use PERL or any other script
in the background to purge printable text and display for final printing. We at
Tutorialspoint use this method to provide print facility to our site visitors.