PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. A useful way to start thinking about
matter is to think about the different materials, or substances, that it can be made into. These materials
make up the objects around us, and each of these materials has different properties or characteristics
that can be observed or tested.

Module 1 of General Chemistry 2 will provide you a better understanding of the different
properties and characteristics of matter, as well as the fundamental states of matter. In addition, the
different properties of solutions and its concentration units, that are very essential, will also be
discussed thoroughly.

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids
• Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces
• Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on
these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of
vaporization
• Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
• Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids
• Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide
• Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance
• Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole fraction,
molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm
• Describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solutions

This module has the following lessons:

UNIT I: Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids

Lessons Title Expected Estimated no.
Outcome of days
Lesson 1 Intermolecular Forces Interpret and draw 7 ½ days
conclusion from the
Lesson 2 Properties of Liquids data gathered during
the experiment of
Lesson 3 Properties of Solids phase changes
Lesson 4 Phase Changes

UNIT II: Properties of Solutions

Lessons Title Expected Estimated no.

Outcome of days
Lesson 1 Types of Solution Display 7 ½ days
Lesson 2 Concentration Units and understanding and
Comparison of analysis of the
Concentration Units and colligative properties
Colligative Properties of of solution
Solutions
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 1 | 27
 PRE – ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Which intermolecular force is present in all molecules?
A. hydrogen bond C. dispersion forces
B. ion-dipole forces D. dipole-dipole forces

2. Which of the three states of matter has the strongest intermolecular forces?
A. Solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. gas, solid, liquid

3. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?

A. surface tension
B. viscosity
C. vapor pressure
D. heat of vaporization

4. Determine which among the choices is not a type of phase change.

A. Freezing B. Solid C. Melting D. Sublimation

5. Solid Carbon Dioxide is also known as ________.

A. Ice B. Dry Ice C. Gas D. Toxic Gas

6. The change from solid to gas is called _____________.

A. Condensation B. Sublimation C. Melting D. Freezing

7. What is an electrolyte?
A. A substance that can conduct electricity when dissolved in water
B. A substance that does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water
C. A substance that sometimes conduct electricity when dissolved in water
D. A substance that can never conduct electricity when dissolved in water

8. What is the unit of molarity?

A. mol/kg B. mol C. mol/L D. none of the above
9. It is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100 percent.
A. Percent by Volume B. Percent by Mass C. Molality D. Molarity

10. These are colligative properties, except:

A. Vapor Pressure Lowering C. Boiling Point Elevation
B. Boiling Point Depression D. Freezing Point Depression

END OF PRE-ASSESSMENT

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 2 | 27

 UNIT I: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

Molecules of substance are held together by intermolecular forces. The strength of these
forces determines the state of the substance – solid, liquid, or gas – at room temperature. Liquids and
solids have strong intermolecular forces. They have high melting and boiling points. Gases, on the
other hand, have weak intermolecular forces. They have low melting points and boiling points.

Intermolecular forces also affect solubility. A polar substance is only soluble in another polar
substance; and a nonpolar substance is soluble in another nonpolar substance. Easily put, “like
dissolves like” is the simplest rule in determining the solubility of one compound in another, where
“likeness” pertains to the polarity of the solute of the solvent. For example, oil, a nonpolar substance,
is not soluble in water, a polar substance. Sucrose (or sugar), a polar substance, is soluble in water.
Sodium chloride (table salt) will also dissolve in water because of its polar ionic properties.

This unit will provide you with deeper understanding of the intermolecular forces and the
properties of liquids and solids. This unit will also provide in-depth discussion of the topics.

Objectives:
• Define the kinetic molecular theory of liquids and solids
• Identify the different intermolecular forces
• Distinguish the different types of intermolecular forces
• Describe the properties of liquids
• Explain the Uniqueness of water
• Recognize the two broad categories of solids
• Differentiate the different phase changes of matter

Activity 1. The Three States

The three states are the three distinct physical forms that matter can take in most
environments: solid, liquid, and gas. These states are what drives the Earth in maintaining an
equilibrium.
Watch the three videos about the three states in order for you to learn more about them and
serve as a foundation of knowledge for this unit.

Video Clip 1: What would happen if you didn’t drink water?

[Link]
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? | Ted Ed | 4:52 mins.
Q1: What role does water play in our bodies?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 3 | 27
 Q2: How much do we actually need to drink to stay healthy?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Video Clip 2: What is a solid?

[Link]
Primary Science Lesson Idea: What is a solid? | Tigtag (Twig Education) | 3:06 mins
Q1: What exactly is a solid?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q2: Why do solids have fixed shape?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Video Clip 3: Describing the invisible properties of gas

[Link]
Describing the Invisible Properties of Gas | Ted Ed | 3:26 mins.
Q1: Why do we see gas as almost invisible?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q2: Why do gases do not have a shape of their own?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 4 | 27

 LESSON 1 Intermolecular Forces
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids
In General Chemistry 1, we used the kinetic molecular theory to explain the behavior of gases
in terms of the constant, random motion of gas molecules. In gases, the distances between molecules
are so great (compared with their diameters) that at ordinary temperatures and pressures (say, 25°C
and 1 atm), there is no appreciable interaction between the molecules. Because there is a great deal
of empty space in a gas—that is, space that is not occupied by molecules—gases can be readily
compressed. The lack of strong forces between molecules also allows a gas to expand to fill the
volume of its container. Furthermore, the large amount of empty space explains why gases have very
low densities under normal conditions.
Liquids and solids are quite a different story. The principal difference between the condensed
states (liquids and solids) and the gaseous state is the distance between molecules. In a liquid, the
molecules are so close together that there is very little empty space. Thus, liquids are much more
difficult to compress than gases, and they are also much denser under normal conditions. Molecules
in a liquid are held together by one or more types of attractive forces, which will be discussed later. A
liquid also has a definite volume, because molecules in a liquid do not break away from the attractive
forces. The molecules can, however, move past one another freely, and so a liquid can flow, can be
poured, and assumes the shape of its container.
In a solid, molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom of motion. Many
solids are characterized by long-range order; that is, the molecules are arranged in regular
configurations in three dimensions. There is even less empty space in a solid than in a liquid. Thus,
solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape and volume.

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules. This is different from
intramolecular force, a positive (+) charge on one particle is attracted to the negative (-) on the other
particles. When intermolecular forces are strong, the atoms, molecules or ions, are strongly attracted
to each other and draw closer together. These are more likely to be found in condensed states such
as liquids and solids. When intermolecular forces are weak, the atoms, molecules or ions, do not have
a strong attraction for each other and move far apart.

Table 1. 1. Characteristic Properties of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

State of Matter Volume/Shape Density Compressibility Motion of Molecules
Gas Assumes the volume Low Very compressible Very free motion
and shape of its
container
Liquid Has a definite volume High Only slightly Slide one past another
but assumes the compressible freely
shape of its container
Solid Has a definite volume High Virtually Vibrate about fixed
and shape incompressible positions

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 5 | 27

 Types of Intermolecular Forces

Ion-Dipole Forces – When an ion and a nearby polar

molecule (dipole) attract each other, an ion-dipole force
results. The most important example takes place when an
ionic compound dissolves in water. The ions became
separated because the attraction between the ions and
the oppositely charged poles of the H2O molecules are
Figure 1.1. Two types of ion-dipole
stronger than the attractions between the ions interaction

themselves.

Dipole-Dipole Forces – the polar molecules in liquids

and solids lie near each other; and their partial charges
act as tiny electric fields that give rise to dipole-dipole
forces: the positive pole of one molecule attracts the Figure 1.2. Molecules that have a
permanent dipole moment tend to align
negative pole of another. with opposite polarities in the solid phase
for maximum attractive interaction.

Hydrogen Bond – a special type of dipole-dipole forces

arises between molecules that have an H atom bonded
to a small, highly electronegative atom with lone electron
pairs, specifically N, O, or F. The basis of this force is that
the H – N, H – O, and H – F bonds are very polar. When
the partially positive H of one molecule is attracted to the
partially negative lone pair on the N, O, or F of another
(A)
molecule, a Hydrogen bond (H bond) forms.

Figure 1.3.
Hydrogen bonding in water

A). The electrons in the OOH bonds of H2O molecules are

attracted to the oxygen atoms, leaving the positively
charged protons partially exposed. A proton on one water
molecule is attracted to a lone pair on an oxygen atom in (B)
another water molecule.

B). An electrostatic-potential map of two hydrogen-bonded

water molecules, in which the electron density is shown by
gradations of color from blue (low density) to green to
yellow to red (high density).

C). Lewis structures of water with hydrogen bonding

between molecules.

(C)

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 6 | 27

 Polarizability and Induced Dipole Forces – even though electrons are attracted to nuclei and
localized in bonding and lone pairs, we often picture them as “clouds” of negative charge because they
are in constant motion. A nearby electric field can induce a distortion in the cloud, putting electron
density toward a positive pole of a field or pushing it away from a negative one:
• For a nonpolar molecule, the distortion induces a temporary dipole moment.
• For a polar molecule, it enhances the dipole moment already present.
How easily the electron cloud of an atom (or ion) can be distorted is called its polarizability. Smaller
particles are less polarizable than larger ones because their electrons are closer to the nucleus
and therefore held more tightly. Ion-induced dipole and dipole- induced dipole forces are the two
types of charged-induced dipole forces; they are most important in solutions.

Figure 1.4. Induced dipoles interacting with each other. Such patterns exist only momentarily; new arrangements are
formed in the next instant. This type of interaction is responsible for the condensation of nonpolar gases.

Dispersion (London) Forces – the intermolecular force

responsible for the condensed states of nonpolar
substances is the dispersion force (or London force,
named after Fritz London, the physicist who explained its
quantum-mechanical basis around 1930). Dispersion
forces are present between all atoms, ions, and molecules
because they are caused by the motion of electrons in
atoms.

Figure 1.4. (a) Spherical charge distribution in a

helium atom. (b) Distortion caused by the approach
of a cation. (c) Distortion caused by the approach of
a dipole.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 7 | 27

 LESSON 2 Properties of Liquids
Activity 2. “Which is Which?”
Direction. Identify which one of the two given pictures belong to the properties of liquids. Put a check
mark below to answer.

Of the three states, only liquids combine the ability to flow with the effects of strong
intermolecular forces.

Surface Tension – is the energy required to increase the surface area. In general, the stronger the
forces between particles, the more energy it takes to increase the surface area, so the greater the
surface tension. Water has a high surface tension because its molecules form H bonds (see Figure
1.6 & 1.7). Surfactants (surface-active agents), such as soaps, petroleum recovery agents, and fat
emulsifiers, decrease the surface tension of water by congregating at the surface and disrupting the H
bonds.

Capillarity – the rising of a liquid against the pull of gravity through a narrow space, such as a thin
tube, is called capillary action, or capillarity. Capillarity results from a competition between
intermolecular forces within the liquid (cohesive forces) and those between the liquid and the tube
walls (adhesive forces). Capillary rise is a phenomenon related to surface tension. When a small-
diameter glass tube, or capillary, is placed upright in water, a column of the liquid rises in the tube
(Figure 1.5A).

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 8 | 27

 This capillary rise can be explained in the following way: water molecules happen to be
attracted to glass. Because of this attraction, a thin film of water starts to move up the inside of the
glass capillary. But in order to reduce the surface area of this film, the water level begins to rise also.
The final water level is a balance between the surface tension and the potential energy required to lift
the water against gravity. Note that the meniscus, or liquid surface within the tube, has its edges curved
upward; that is, it has a concave shape.
In the case of mercury, the liquid level in the capillary is lower than for the liquid outside
(Figure 1.5B). Also, the meniscus has its edges curved downward; that is, it has a convex shape. The
difference between Figures 1.5A and 1.5B results from the fact that the attraction between mercury
atoms is greater than the attraction of mercury atoms for glass, in contrast to the situation for water
and glass.

Viscosity – is the resistance of a fluid to flow, and it results from intermolecular attractions that impede
the movement of molecules around past each other (see Figure 1.8). Both gases and liquids flow, but
liquid viscosities are much higher because the much shorter distances between their particles result
in many more points for intermolecular forces to resist the flow of nearby molecules. There are two
factors that affect viscosity:
Temperature and molecular shape.
• Effect of temperature. Viscosity decreases with heating. Faster moving molecules overcome
intermolecular forces more easily, so the resistance to flow decreases. Next time you heat
cooking oil, watch the oil flow more easily and spread out in the pan as it warms.
• Effect of molecular shape. Small, spherical molecules make little contact and pour easily. Long
molecules make more contact and become entangled and pour slowly, like cooked spaghetti
from a bowl. Thus, given the same types of intermolecular forces, liquids consisting of longer
molecules have higher viscosities.

Figure 1.5. Liquid levels in capillaries

(A) Capillary rise, due to the attraction of water and glass. Hydrogen bonds between the water
molecules and the gas are illustrated. The final water level in the capillary is a balance between
the force of gravity and the surface tension of water. (B) Depression, or lowering, of mercury level
in a glass capillary. Unlike water, mercury is not attracted to glass.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 9 | 27

 A.

Figure 1.6. Demonstration of surface tension of water

(A). A steel pin will float on the surface of water because of surface
tension.
(B). The water surface is depressed and slightly stretched by the pin
(bottom), but even more surface would have to be created for the
pin to submerge, which takes more energy. The easiest way to float
a pin is to place a square of tissue paper, with the pin on top of it, on
the prongs of a fork. When the fork is lowered into the water, the
B. tissue and pin float on the surface. The paper soon becomes
waterlogged and sinks, leaving the pin floating.

Figure 1.7. Water strider

on a water surface
The water strider seems to
skate on the surface “skin” of
the water, which is actually a
result of surface tension.

Figure 1.8. Comparison of the viscosities of two liquids

Similar steel balls were dropped simultaneously into two graduated
cylinders, the right one containing water and the left one glycerol.
A steel ball takes considerably longer to fall through a column of
glycerol than through a similar column of water, because glycerol
has a greater viscosity than water.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 10 | 27

 The Uniqueness of Water
Water is absolutely amazing stuff, with some of the most unusual properties of any substance,
but it is so familiar we take it for granted. Like any substance, its properties arise inevitably from those
of its atoms.
• Water is the environmental and biological solvent, forming the complex solutions we know as
oceans, lakes, and cellular fluid. From a chemical point of view, all organisms, from bacteria to
humans, are highly organized systems of membranes enclosing and compartmentalizing
complex aqueous solutions.
• Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for water’s high surface tension and high capillarity.
• In the solid state, the tetrahedral arrangement of H-bonded water molecules leads to
hexagonal, open structure of ice, and the symmetrical beauty of snowflakes reflects the
hexagonal organization (see Figure 1.9). The large spaces within ice make the solid less
dense that the liquid. This change in density is vital for freshwater life especially in lakes during
winter.

Figure 1.9. The structure of ice

Oxygen atoms are represented by large red
spheres; hydrogen atoms, by small spheres.
Each oxygen atom is tetrahedrally surrounded
by four hydrogen atoms. Two are close, giving
the H2O molecule. Two are farther away, held
by hydrogen bonding (represented by three
dots). The distribution of hydrogen atoms in
these two types of positions is random.

Activity 3. What is water to you?

Direction. In 2-3 sentences, explain the importance of water in your life?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 11 | 27

 LESSON 3 Properties of Solids
Activity 4. “Find the solid”
Direction. A. Identify which of the following pictures are solid. Put a check mark.
B. Identify which of the following pictures are amorphous and crystalline. Connect a line
between the boxes.

Amorphous Amorphous

Crystalline Crystalline

Structural Features of Solids

We can divide solids into two broad categories:

Figure 1.10. The lattice of crystalline quartz (SiO2). The atoms Figure 1.11. The amorphous structure of an obsidian.
form a regular arrangement in a structure that consists of linked A volcanic glass with the same chemical composition as
tetrahedra. granite (typically KAlSi3O8), tends to have curved,
irregular surfaces when cleaved.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 12 | 27
 • Crystalline solids have well-defined shapes because their particles – atoms, molecules, or ions –
occur in an orderly arrangement. A crystalline solid is composed of one or more crystals. Sodium
chloride (table salt) and sucrose (table sugar) are examples of crystalline substances. Metals are
usually compact masses of crystals
• Amorphous solids have poorly defined shapes or disordered structure because their particles lack
an orderly arrangement throughout the sample. Examples are rubber and glass. A glass is an
amorphous solid obtained by cooling a liquid rapidly enough that its basic units are “frozen” in random
positions before they can assume an ordered crystalline arrangement. Common window glass is an
example, as is obsidian, a natural glass formed when molten rock from a volcanic eruption cools
quickly.

Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids

• Atomic Solids – individual atoms held together only by dispersion forces form an atomic solid, and
the noble gases are the only substances that form such solids. The very weak forces among the atoms
mean melting and boiling points and heats of vaporization and fusion are all very low, rising smoothly
with increasing molar mass. Argon crystallizes in a cubic closest packed structure, as do the other
noble gases.

• Molecular solids – in the many thousands of molecular solids, individual molecules occupy the
lattice points. Various combinations of dipole-dipole, dispersion, and H-bonding forces account for a
wide range of physical properties.

Figure 1.12. Closest packing of spheres

(A) Each layer is formed by placing spheres in the crevices of the adjoining row. (B) When a sphere is placed in a hollow
on top of a layer, three other hollows are partially covered. (C) There are two types of hollows on top of the second layer,
labeled x and y. The x sites are directly above the spheres in the first layer; the y sites are not. Spheres of a third layer
may occupy either all of the x sites or all of the y sites.

• Ionic solids - Ionic solids have positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic attractions,
which can be quite strong. It accounts for the high melting points many ionic crystals have. Although
ionic solids are hard, they also tend to be brittle, and they shatter rather than bend. Ionic solids do not
conduct electricity, but once it is molten or dissolved, it may be a good conductor since their ions are
free to move. Examples of this type of solids are sodium chloride and nickel oxide.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 13 | 27

 Figure 1.13. Sodium chloride unit cell
Sodium chloride has a face-centered cubic lattice. (A) The unit cell shown here (as a space-filling model) has Cl-
ions at the corners and at the centers of the faces of the cube. The Cl- ions are much larger than Na+ ions, so the
Cl- ions are nearly touching and have approximately a cubic close-packed structure; the Na+ ions are in cavities in
this structure. (B) The alternative unit cell shown here has Na ions at the corners and the centers of the faces of
the unit cell.

• Metallic solids – most metallic elements crystallize in one of the two closest packed structures. In
contrast to the weak dispersion forces in atomic solids, powerful metallic bonding forces atoms
together in metallic solids. The properties of metals – high electrical and thermal conductivity, luster,
and malleability – result from their delocalized electrons. Melting points and hardnesses of metallic
solids are also related to packing efficiency and number of valence electrons.

• Network Covalent solids – strong covalent bonds link the atoms together in a network covalent
solids; thus, separate particles are not present. These substances adopt variety of crystal structures
depending on the details of their bonding. As a consequence of strong bonding, all network covalent
solids have extremely high melting and boiling points, but their conductivity and hardness vary. Two
examples with the same composition but strikingly different properties are the two common crystalline
forms of elemental carbon: graphite and diamond (see Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.14 Structures of diamond and graphite

Diamond is a three-dimensional network solid; every carbon atom is covalently bonded to four others.
Graphite consists of sheets of carbon atoms covalently bonded to form a hexagonal pattern of atoms; the
sheets are held together by van der Waals forces.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 14 | 27

 LESSON IV Phase Changes
Activity 5. “Look at my Phase”
Direction. Identify which phase does the certain substance changes.

Each physical state is called a phase, a physically distinct, homogeneous part of a system.
The water in a closed container constitutes one phase; the water vapor above the liquid is a second
phase; add some ice and there are three.

Types of Phase Changes

When we consider phase changes, understanding the effect of temperature is critical:
• As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy does too, so the faster moving particles
overcome attractions more easily.
• As temperature decreases, particles slow, so attractions can pull them together.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 15 | 27

 1. Gas to liquid, and vice versa. As the temperature drops, the molecules in the gas phase come
together and form a liquid in the process of condensation; the opposite process, changing from liquid
to a gas, is vaporization.

2. Liquid to solid, and vice versa. As the temperature drops further, the particles move slower and
become fixed in position in the process of freezing; the opposite change is called melting, or fusion.
In common speech, freezing implies low temperature because we think of water. But, molten metals,
for example, freeze (solidify) at much higher temperatures and have medical, industrial, and artistic
applications, such as gold dental crowns, steel auto bodies, and bronze statues.

3. Gas to solid, and vice versa. All three states of water are familiar because they are stable under
ordinary conditions. Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, is familiar as a gas and a solid (dry ice), but
liquid CO2 occurs only at pressures of 5.1 atm or greater. At ordinary conditions, solid CO 2 changes
directly to a gas, a process called sublimation.
Sublimation can be seen also in iodine suspended in a beaker (see Figure 1.15) Freeze-
dried foods are prepared by sublimation. The opposite process, changing from a gas directly into a
solid, is called deposition – ice crystals form on a cold window from the deposition of water vapor.

Figure 1.15. Sublimation of iodine

Left: The beaker contains iodine crystals, I2; a dish of ice rests on top of the beaker. Right: Iodine has an appreciable
vapor pressure even below its melting point (114°C); thus, when heated carefully, the solid sublimes without melting.
The vapor deposits as crystals on the cool underside of the dish.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 16 | 27

 UNIT SUMMARY
_______________________________________________________________________________

• Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules

• Intermolecular forces have different types namely: Ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bond,
polarizability and induce dipole forces, and dispersion (London) forces.
• Surface Tension is the energy required to increase the surface area.
• Capillarity, the rising of a liquid through a narrow space, occurs when the forces between a
liquid and a surface are greater than those within the liquid.
• Viscosity, the resistance to flow, depends on molecular shape and decreases with
temperature. Stronger intermolecular forces create higher viscosity.
• Because water expands on freezing, lake life survives in winter and nutrients mix from
seasonal density changes.
• Particles in crystalline solids lie at points that form a structure of repeating unit cells.
• There are two categories of solids, namely: crystalline and amorphous.
• The three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas, undergo phase changes under different
conditions.

GO TO WORKBOOK
• Answer Assessment 1 on Page 3
• Answer Assessment 2 on Page 4
• Answer Assessment 3 on Page 5
• Do Mini Task on Page 6

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 17 | 27

 UNIT II PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogeneous mixture in which a solute dissolve in a solvent, and the separate
particles occur as individual atoms, ions, or molecules. Solubility refers to the amount of solute that
dissolves in a fixed amount of solvent at a given temperature. Intermolecular forces occur between
solute and solvent particles, and the like-dissolves-like rule refers to the fact that solutions form when
solute and solvent have similar types and strengths of intermolecular forces. Solutions occur with
substances in any combination of physical states.
This unit will provide you with deeper understanding of the properties of solutions especially
its types, concentration units, and colligative properties.

Objectives:
• Enumerate the different types of solutions
• Explain the factors that affect the rate at which substances dissolve
• Describe the concept of concentration
• Explain the concentration units
• Solve the problems of molality, molarity, percent by mass and volume and mole of fraction
• Explain the effect of solute concentration on the colligative properties of solution

LESSON 1 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

Activity 1. Solute VS. Solvent
Direction. Choose on the pictures which solute or solvent make up the following solution below. Put
your answer in the corresponding boxes.

Solvent Solute Solvent Solute Solvent Solute

Salt Solution Sugar Solution Carbonated

Softdrink

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 18 | 27

 Liquid Solutions – from cytoplasm to tree sap, gasoline to cleaning fluid, iced tea to urine, liquid
solutions are very familiar. Water is the most prominent solvent, but there are many other liquid
solvents, with polarities from very polar to nonpolar. Fluids that mix with or dissolve in each other in all
proportions are said to be miscible fluids. If two fluids do not mix but, rather, form two layers, they are
said to be immiscible.

Figure 1.16. Immiscible and miscible liquids

Left: Acetone and water are miscible liquids; that is, the two substances dissolve in each
other in all proportions. Right: Water and methylene chloride are immiscible and form two
layers.

Applying the like-dissolves-like rule – means that when the forces within the solute are similar to those
within the solvent, the forces replace each other and a solution form. Thus, for example,
• Salts are soluble in water because the strong ion-dipole attractions between ion and water are
similar to the strong attractions between the ions and the strong H bonds between water molecules,
so they can replace each other.
• Salts are insoluble in hexane (C6H14) because the weak ion-induced dipole forces between ion and
nonpolar hexane cannot replace attractions between the ions.
• Oil is insoluble in water because the weak dipole-induced dipole forces between oil and water
molecules cannot replace the strong H bonds within water molecules and the extensive dispersion
forces within the oil.
• Oil is soluble in hexane because dispersion forces in one readily replace dispersion forces in the
other.

Table 1.2. Examples of Solutions

Solution State of Matter Description
Air Gas Homogeneous mixture of gases (O2, N2, others)
Soda water Liquid Gas (CO2) dissolved in a liquid (H2O)
Ethanol in water Liquid Liquid solution of two completely miscible liquids
Brine Liquid Solid (NaCl) dissolved in a liquid (H2O)
Potassium-sodium alloy Liquid Solution of two solids (K + Na)
Dental-filling alloy Solid Solution of a liquid (Hg) in a solid (Ag plus other metals)
Gold-silver alloy Solid Solution of two solids (Au + Ag)

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 19 | 27

 Gas-Liquid Solutions – a substance with very weak intermolecular attractions has a low boiling point
and is a gas under ordinary conditions. Likewise, it is not very soluble in water because solute-solvent
forces are weak. Thus, for nonpolar or slightly polar gases, boiling point generally correlates with
solubility in water.

Gas-Gas Solutions – all gases are miscible (soluble in each other in any proportion) with each other.
Air is the classic example of a gaseous solution, consisting of about 18 gases in widely differing
proportions.

Gas-Solid Solutions – When a gas dissolves in a solid, it occupies the spaces between the closely
packed particles. Hydrogen gas can be purified by passing an impure sample through palladium. Only
H2 molecules are small enough to fit between the Pd atoms, where they form Pd – H bonds. The H
atoms move from one Pd atom to another and emerge from the metals as H 2 molecules.

Solid-Solid Solutions – solids diffuse so little that their mixtures are usually heterogeneous. Some
solid-solid solutions can be formed by melting the solids and then mixing them and allowing them to
freeze. Many alloys, mixtures of substances that have a metallic character, are solid-solid solutions.
Brass, a familiar example of an alloy, is a mixture of zinc and copper.

Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

• A saturated solution is at equilibrium and contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at a
given temperature in the presence of undissolved solute. Therefore, if you filter off the solution and
add more solute, it doesn’t dissolve.
• An unsaturated solution contains less than the equilibrium concentration of dissolved solute; add
more solute, and more dissolves until the solution is saturated.
• A supersaturated solution contains more than the equilibrium concentration and is unstable
relative to the saturated solution; add a “seed” crystal of solute or tap the container, and the excess
solute crystallizes immediately, leaving a saturated solution.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 20 | 27

 Figure 1.17. Comparison of unsaturated and
saturated solutions
Top: The 30.0-g pile of NaCl will dissolve completely in 100 mL of water at 20°C, giving
an unsaturated solution.
Bottom: When 40.0 g NaCl is stirred into 100 mL H2O, 36.0 g dissolves at 20°C, leaving
4.0 g of the crystalline solid on the bottom of the beaker. This solution is saturated.

Factors that Affect the Rate at which Substances Dissolve

Particle Size – because of the greater surface area exposed to the solvent small particles will dissolve
more readily than larger ones. Thus, the rate of dissolution of smaller particles is faster than that of
large particles. For example, a solid lump of sugar will dissolve much more slowly than the same
amount of sugar in small granules.

Figure 1.18. Comparison particle sizes in centimeters.

Increase in temperature – increasing the temperature speeds up dissolution. This is true whether the
solubility increases or decreases at a higher temperature. The reason for this increase is that the
kinetic energies of the solute, solvent, and solution increase. The higher kinetic energy of the solute
causes its particles to break away more rapidly. The increased kinetic energy of the solvent causes its
molecules to move rapidly, and thus, come in contact with the solute particles more quickly. This is
similar to the effect of stirring. Considering this change in the rate of dissolution by heating, one should
keep in mind that the temperature is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of the particles in
a sample. Hence, at a higher temperature, all the particles involved have a higher kinetic energy;
therefore, the overall rate of dissolution is increased.

Figure 1.18. Solubility of some ionic salts at

different temperatures
The solubilities of the salts NaCl, KNO3, and
CuSO4 rise with increasing temperature, as is
the case with most ionic solids. The solubility
of Ce2(SeO4)3, however, falls with increasing
temperature.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 21 | 27

 Agitation or Stirring – when a solid is first put into a solvent, the only solvent with which it comes in
contact is within the immediate vicinity. As the solid dissolves, the amount of dissolved solute around
the solid becomes more and more concentrated and the rate of dissolving slows down. If the mixture
is not stirred, the dissolved solute diffuses very slowly through the solution. Weeks may pass before
the solid is entirely dissolved. Stirring distributes the dissolved solute through the solution, and more
solvent is brought into contact with the solid, causing the solid to dissolve more rapidly.

Concentration of the Solution – when the solute and solvent are first mixed, the rate of dissolving is
at its maximum. This rate decreases as the concentration of the solution increases and the solution
becomes saturated with the solute. Although dissolution rates of solutes vary, the rate always slows
down as the concentration approaches saturation point. Unsaturated and saturated solutions are two
solutions that are common but there are also supersaturated solutions where, in a sample have very
high concentration compared to the two solutions. Supersaturated solutions are not in equilibrium with
the solid substance. If a small crystal of sodium thiosulfate is added to a supersaturated solution, the
excess immediately crystallizes out. Crystallization from a supersaturated solution is usually quite fast
and dramatic.

Figure 1.18. Crystallization from a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate

Left: Crystallization begins to occur when a small crystal of sodium acetate is added.
Center, right: Within seconds, crystal growth spreads from the original crystal throughout the
solution.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 22 | 27

 LESSON 2 Concentration Units and Comparison of Concentration Units
Activity 2. Matching Type
Direction. Connect, by drawing a line, the corresponding formula of the following concentration units.
Concentration Unit Formula
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by Mass
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
volume of solute
 volume of solute = × 100
Molality 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

Percent by Volume 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

mass of solute
 mass of solute = × 100
Mole of Fraction 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

Molarity
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Concentration is the proportion of a substance in a mixture, so it is an intensive property (like

density and temperature), one that does not depend on the quantity of mixture. Concentration is a ratio
of quantities, most often solute to solution, but sometimes solute to solvent. Both parts of the ratio can
be given in units of mass, volume, or amount (mol), and chemists express concentration by several
terms, including molarity, molality, and various expressions of “parts of solute per part by solution.

Molarity and Molality

1. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: 0.20 mol of ethylene glycol dissolved in enough water to give 2.0 L of solution has a molarity
0.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑡𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑙
of: = 0.10 M ethylene glycol
2.0 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Try this!
3.55 mol of NaCl dissolved in enough water to give 5 L of solution.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 23 | 27

 2. Molality (m) does not contain volume in its ratio; it is the number of moles of solute dissolved in
1000 g (1kg) of solvent.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Example: 0.20 mol of ethylene glycol dissolved in 2.0 × 103 g (= 2.0 kg) of water has a molality of
0.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑡𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑙
= 0.10 m of ethylene glycol
2.0 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution

3. Parts by Mass – the most common of these terms is mass percent. The word percent means “per
hundred”, so mass percent means mass of solute dissolved in 100.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 mass of solute
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =  mass of solute = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = × 100
Example: 5 grams of salt (NaCl) is 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
dissolved in 75 grams of water. What is the
5 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 NaCl
percent by mass of salt in a solution? % 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 NaCl =
5 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 NaCl + 75 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
× 100

% 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 NaCl = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 %

Parts by Volume – the most common parts-by-volume term is volume percent, the volume of solute
in 100.
volume of solute
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒  volume of solute = × 100
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = × 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example: What is the percentage by 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

volume if 25 mL of methyl alcohol is %𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = × 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
added to make 50 mL solution?
25 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = × 100
50 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

% 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = 𝟓𝟎 %

Try this one!

A solution of methanol is prepared by dissolving 35 mL of methanol in water to give
a total of 115 mL solution. What is the % by volume concentration of methanol?

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 24 | 27

 Mole Fraction – the mole fraction (X) of a solute is the ratio of number of moles of solute to the total
number of moles (solute to solvent), that is, parts by mole:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑋) =
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 )𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 )𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example: What are the mole fractions of glucose and water in a solution containing 5.67 g of glucose,
C6H12O6, dissolved in 25.2 g of water? Where 5.67 g of glucose equals 0.0315 mol of glucose.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
25.2 g water × = 1.40 mol of water (H2O)
18.0 𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Hence, the total moles of solution are

1.40 mol + 0.0315 mol = 1.432 mol
0.0315 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fraction glucose = = 0.0220
1.432 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1.40 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fraction water =
1.432 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 0.978

Colligative Properties of Solutions

The presence of solute gives a solution different physical property than the pure solvent. But,
in the case of four important properties, it is the number of solute particles, not their chemical identity,
that makes the difference. These colligative properties (colligative means “collective”) are vapor
pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. Most of
the effects are small, but they have many applications, including some vital to organisms. We predict
the magnitude of a colligative property from the solute formula, which shows the number of particles
in solution and is closely related to our classification of solutes by their ability to conduct an electric
current:

1. Electrolytes. An aqueous solution of an electrolyte conducts because the solute separates into ions
as it dissolves.
• Strong electrolytes – soluble salts, strong acids, and strong bases – dissociate completely,
so their solutions conduct well.
• Weak electrolytes – weak acids and weak bases – dissociate very little, so their solutions
conduct poorly.
2. Nonelectrolytes. Compounds such as sugar and alcohol do not dissociate into ions at all. They are
nonelectrolytes because their solutions do not conduct current.
Effect of solute concentration on the colligative properties of solutions
The concentration or amount of nonvolatile solute (i.e., a solute that does not have a vapor
pressure of its own) in the solution influences the colligative properties of solutions. The result will
depend on the ratio between the number of solute and solvent particles in the solution and not on the
solute's identity. However, it is necessary to consider whether the solute is an electrolyte or a
nonelectrolyte.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 25 | 27

 Effect of solute concentration on the colligative properties of solutions
• Vapor Pressure Lowering - A direct measure of the escaping capacity of molecules is vapor
pressure. A pure liquid (solvent) can achieve equilibrium with its vapor in a closed container.
And the pressure exerted by the vapor is called vapor pressure until the equilibrium is attained.
A substance that does not have a noticeable vapor pressure is nonvolatile, whereas one that
has a vapor pressure is volatile.
• Boiling Point Elevation - The addition of a non-volatile solute decreases the vapor pressure
of the solution, so that the vapor pressure of the solution is returned to a value conforming to
the pure solvent, the temperature must be increased. In fact, the temperature at which the
vapor pressure is 1 atm is greater than the normal boiling point by an amount known as the
boiling point elevation.
• Freezing Point Depression - The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which
the solid and liquid forms can coexist indefinitely, at equilibrium. Under these conditions
molecules pass between the 2 phases at equal rates because their escaping tendencies from
the two phases are identical.

UNIT SUMMARY
________________________________________________________________________________

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent through the action of

intermolecular forces.
• Ion-dipole, ion-induced dipole, and dipole-induced dipole forces occur in solutions, in addition
to all the intermolecular forces that also occur in pure substances.
• A solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute in the presence of excess
undissolved solute is saturated. A saturated solution is in equilibrium with the excess solute,
because solute particles are entering and leaving the solution at the same rate.
• The concentration of a solution is independent of the quantity of solution and can be expressed
as molarity (mol solute/L solution), molality (mol solute/ kg solvent), parts by mass (mass
solute/ mass solution), parts by volume (volume solute/ volume solution), or mole fraction [mol
solute/ (mol solute + mol solvent)].
• Colligative properties arise from the number, not the type, of solute particles.
• Compared to pure solvent, a solution has lower pressure, elevated boiling point, and
depressed freezing point, and it gives rise to osmotic pressure.

GO TO WORKBOOK
• Answer Assessment 4 on Page 8
• Answer Assessment 5 on Page 9
• Do Mini Task on Page 10

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 26 | 27

 Answer Key:
PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. C 6. B
2. A 7. A
3. B 8. C
4. B 9. B
5. B 10. B
Unit 1
Activity 1 – Answer varies
Activity 2 – 1st (Upper left) and 3rd Picture (Lower left)
Activity 3 – Answer varies
Activity 4 – Upper left – Amorphous Lower left - crystalline
Upper right – Crystalline Lower right – amorphous
Activity 5 - Upper left – Freezing Lower left - Deposition
Upper right – Melting Lower right – Sublimation

Unit 2
Activity 1 – Salt solution (salt + water)
Sugar solution (sugar + water)
Carbonated drink (carbon dioxide + soda)
Activity 2 – Answers on lesson 2
Try this!
1. 0.71
2. 30.4%

References

Silberberg, M. (2016). General Chemistry 1 and 2. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Tenth Edition.
Chang, R. (2007). Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Ninth Edition.
"Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids; Phase Changes" Retrieved from:
[Link]
Solids-pptx
Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., et. al. (2015). Chemistry The Central Science. 13th Edition. Pearson
Education Inc. United States of America.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2: MODULE 1 PAGE 27 | 27