UNIT III

Data Collection and Sampling

Sources of Data – Primary Data Collection
Methods
Observation Method
Interview Method
Questionnaires
Collection of Secondary Data
Sampling – Population
Steps in Sample Design
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
Types – Probability and Non – Probability
Sampling.
DATA COLLECTION
The task of data collection begins after a research problem
has been defined and research design/plan chalked out.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and
for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which
have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.
There are several methods of collecting primary data,
particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.
(i) observation method,
(ii) interview method,
(iii) through questionnaires,
(iv) through schedules, and
Other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e)
using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques;
(g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.
Observation Method
It is used to behavioural sciences.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research
purpose.
Advantages
subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is
done accurately.
the information obtained under this method
relates to what is currently happening; it is
not complicated by either the past behaviour
or future intentions or attitudes.
It is independent of respondents’willingness
suitable in studies which deal with subjects
(i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings
Disadvantages
it is an expensive method.
the information provided by this method is
very limited.
sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task.
structured and unstructured
observation.
observation is characterised by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information,
standardised conditions of observation and
the selection of pertinent data of observation,
then the observation is called as structured
observation.
But when observation is to take place
without these characteristics to be thought of
in advance, the same is termed as
unstructured observation.
participant and non-participant
observation
If the observer observes by making himself,
more or less, a member of the group he is
observing so that he can experience what the
members of the group experience, the
observation is called as the participant
observation.
But when the observer observes as a detached
emissary without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others
feel, the observation of this type is often termed
as non-participant observation.
controlled and uncontrolled
observation
If the observation takes place in the natural
setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation,
but when observation takes place according
to definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then
termed controlled observation
Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
1.Personal Interview
Structured interview, unstructured
interview, focussed interview, clinical
interview and the non-directive interview
2.Telephone Interview
Merits of personal interview
More information and that too in greater
depth can be obtained.
Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance.
There is greater flexibility.
Observation method can as well be applied to
recording verbal answers to various
questions.
Personal information can as well be obtained
easily under this method.
Disadvantages
It is a very expensive method.
There remains the possibility of the bias of
interviewer as well as that of the respondent.
Certain types of respondents such as
important officials or executives or people in
high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
Time-consuming.
The presence of the interviewer on the spot
may over-stimulate the respondent.
Under the interview method the organisation
required.
Interviewing at times may also introduce
systematic errors.
Effective interview presupposes proper
rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses.
Telephone interviews
It is not a very widely used method, but plays
important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.
Merits
Flexible
Faster
Economical
Recall is easy; call backs are simple and economical.
There is a higher rate of response
Replies can be recorded
Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
No field staff is required.
Representative and wider distribution of sample is
possible.
Demerits

Little time is given to respondents for

considered answers.
Surveys are restricted to respondents who
have telephone facilities.
Extensive geographical coverage may get
restricted by cost considerations.
It is not suitable for intensive surveys.
Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is
relatively more.
Questions have to be short and to the point;
probes are difficult to handle.
 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES
It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers,
private and public organizations and even by governments.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or
typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are
expected to read and understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself.
Samples can be controlled more effectively.
The interviewer can usually control which
person(s) will answer the questions.
The interviewer may catch the informant
off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous
The language of the interview can be
adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed.
The interviewer can collect supplementary
information about the respondent’s personal
Characteristics.
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is
widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out
answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can
be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias
due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have been
despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Pilot survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of the main
survey. Such a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to
the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and
also of the survey techniques.
Essentials of a good questionnaire:
To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively
short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be
kept to the minimum.
Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from
easy to more difficult questions.
Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.
Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
SCHEDULES
schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for
the purpose.
This method requires the selection of
enumerators for filling up schedules or
assisting respondents to fill up schedules and
as such enumerators should be very carefully
selected.
The enumerators should be trained to
perform their job well and the nature and
scope of the investigation should be
explained to them thoroughly so that they
may well understand the implications of
different questions put in the schedule.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES
1.The questionnaire is generally sent through
mail to informants to be answered as
specified
in a covering letter, but otherwise without
further assistance from the sender.
The schedule is generally filled out by the
research worker or the enumerator, who can
interpret questions when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is
relatively cheap and economical .
To collect data through schedules is relatively
more expensive since considerable amount of
money has to be spent in appointing
enumerators and in importing training to them.
3.Non-response is usually high in case of
questionnaire as many people do not respond
and many return the questionnaire without
answering all questions.
non-response is generally very low in case of
schedules because these are filled by
enumerators who are able to get answers to all
questions.
4.In case of questionnaire, it is not always
clear as to who replies, but in case of
schedule the
identity of respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very
slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several
reminders, but in case of schedules the
information is collected well in time as they
are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in
case of the questionnaire.
But in case of schedules direct personal
contact is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only
when respondents are literate and
cooperative,
but in case of schedules the information
can be gathered even when the respondents
happen to be illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of
sample is possible under the questionnaire
method, but in respect of schedules there
usually remains the difficulty in sending
enumerators over a relatively wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong

information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method, particularly when people
are unable to understand questions properly.
But in case of schedules, the information
collected is generally complete and accurate as
enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any,
faced by respondents.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies
more on the quality of the questionnaire itself,
but in the case of schedules much depends
upon the honesty and competence of
enumerators.

11. In order to attract the attention of respondents,

the physical appearance of questionnaire must
be quite attractive,
but this may not be so in case of schedules as
they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by
respondents.

12. Along with schedules, observation method

can also be used but such a thing is not possible
while collecting data through questionnaires.
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
1. Warranty cards:
Warranty cards are usually postal
sized cards which are used by dealers
of consumer durables to collect
information regarding their products.
The information sought is printed in
the form of questions on the
‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside
the package along with the product
with a request to the consumer to fill
in the card and post it back to the
dealer.
2. Distributor or store audits:

Distributor or store audits are performed by

distributors as well as manufactures through
their salesmen at regular intervals.
Distributors get the retail stores audited through
salesmen and use such information to estimate
market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such
audits not by questioning but by observation.
For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a
sample of stores is visited periodically and data
are recorded on inventories on hand either by
observation or copying from store records.
3. Pantry audits
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate
consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer
level.
In this type of audit, the investigator collects an
inventory of types, quantities and prices of
commodities consumed.
Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the
examination of consumer’s pantry.
The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out
what types of consumers buy certain products and
certain brands.
4. Consumer panels:
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular
basis is known as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of
consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to
maintain detailed daily records of their consumption
and the same is made available to investigator on
demands.
In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a
sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly
over a period of time.
5. Use of mechanical devices:

The use of mechanical devices has been widely made

to collect information by way of indirect means.
Eye camera, Pupilometric camera,
Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera and
Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed
and commonly used by modern big business houses,
mostly in the developed world for the purpose of
collecting the required information.
Eye cameras are designed to record the focus of eyes of
a respondent on a specific portion of a sketch or
diagram or written material. Such an information is
useful in designing advertising material.

Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as a

result of a visual stimulus. The extent of dilation shows
the degree of interest aroused by the stimulus.
Psychogalvanometer is used for measuring the extent of
body excitement as a result of the visual stimulus.
Motion picture cameras can be used to record
movement of body of a buyer while deciding to buy a
consumer good from a shop or big store
Audiometers are used by some TV concerns to find out
the type of programmes as well as stations preferred by
people.
6. Projective techniques:
Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as
indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of
data have been developed by psychologists to use
projections of respondents for inferring about
underlying motives, urges, or intentions which are such
that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is
unable to figure out himself.
In projective techniques the respondent in supplying
information tends unconsciously to project his own
attitudes or feelings on the subject under study.
 Important projective
techniques
(i) Word association tests
(ii) Sentence completion tests
(iii) Story completion tests
(iv) Play techniques
(v) Quizzes, tests and examinations
(vi) Sociometry
7. Depth interviews:
interviews are those interviews that are designed to
discover underlying motives and desires and are often
used in motivational research. Such interviews are held
to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents.
8. Content-analysis:

Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of

documentary materials such as books, magazines,
newspapers and the contents of all other verbal
materials which can be either spoken or printed.

Content-analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly

quantitative analysis of documentary materials
concerning certain characteristics that can be identified
and counted.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e.,
they refer to the data which have already been collected and
analysed by someone else.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data.
Usually published data are available in: (a) various
publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities,
economists, etc. in different fields; and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other
sources of published information.
 Before using secondary data, must see that they possess
following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data:
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(f) What level of accuracy was desired?
(g) Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data:
3. Adequacy of data:
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR
DATA COLLECTION

1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry:

2. Availability of funds:
3. Time factor:
4. Precision required:
Processing and Analysis of Data
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed
in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at
the time of developing the research plan
1. Editing:
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw
data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions
and to correct these when possible.
Field editing
Central editing
2. Coding:
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other
symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a
limited number of categories or classes.

3. Classification:
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data
which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are
to get meaningful relationships
(a) Classification according to attributes:
(b) Classification according to
4. Tabulation:
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes
necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some
kind of concise and logical order.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of
errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Generally accepted principles of tabulation
Every table should have a clear, concise and
adequate title
Every table should be given a distinct number
The column headings (captions) and the row
headings (stubs) of the table should be clear
and brief.
The units of measurement under each heading or
sub-heading must always be indicated.
Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table
should be placed.
Source or sources from where the data in the table
have been obtained must be indicated just below the
table.
Usually the columns are separated from one another
by lines which make the table more readable and
attractive.
There should be thick lines to separate the data
under one class from the data under another
class.
The columns may be numbered to facilitate
reference.
It is generally considered better to approximate
figures before tabulation as the same would
reduce unnecessary details in the table itself.
SOME PROBLEMS IN
PROCESSING
(a) The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or
DK) responses
(b) Use or percentages:
ELEMENTS/TYPES OF
ANALYSIS
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of
distributions of one variable.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two
or more variables for determining the amount of
correlation between two or more variables.
Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how
one or more variables affect changes in another
variable.
Multivariate analysis
multivariate analysis which may be defined as
“all statistical methods which simultaneously
analyse more than two variables on a sample
of observations”
(a) Multiple regression analysis
(b) Multiple discriminant analysis:
(c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or
multi-ANOVA)
Inferential analysis is concerned with the
various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions.
STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
The important statistical measures that are
used to summarise the survey/research data
are:
(1) measures of central tendency or statistical
averages
(2) measures of dispersion
(3) Measures of asymmetry (skewness)
(4) measures of relationship; and
(5) other measures.
Measures of central
tendency
Arithmetic average or mean,
median and
mode.

Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also

sometimes used.
Measures of dispersion
the variance and its square root—the
standard deviation are the most often used
measures.
Other measures such as mean deviation,
range, etc. are also used.
For comparison purpose, we use mostly the
coefficient of standard deviation or the
coefficient of variation.
Measures of skewness
In respect of the measures of skewness and
kurtosis, we mostly use the first measure of
skewness based on mean and mode or on mean
and median.

Other measures of skewness, based on

quartiles or on the methods of moments, are
also used sometimes.
Measures of relationship
Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the
frequently used measure in case of statistics of
variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of
association is used in case of statistics of
attributes.
Multiple correlation coefficient, partial
correlation coefficient, regression analysis,
etc., are other important measures often used
by a researcher.
Index numbers, analysis of time series,
coefficient of contingency, etc., are other
measures that may as well be used by a
researcher, depending upon the nature of the
problem under study.